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Propulsion
Russian Propulsion Design Institutes--The Baranov Central Institute of Aviation Engine Building (TsIAM) in Moscow is the primary Russian organization for the development of aircraft powerplants. Established in 1930, it is today involved mainly in jet engine design and testing as well as advanced powerplants, such as the current scramjet effort. Development of rocket engines is generally managed by the TsNIIMash. Some of the major jet and rocket engine design bureaus are listed below.
Energomash NPO im. V. P. Glushko; GDL-OKB; OKB-456--Located in Khimki, this bureau is derived from the pre-war Leningrad GDL-OKB (Gas Dynamics Lab-Special Design Bureau). The GDL-OKB eventually became the most successful of Soviet rocket engine design bureaus, specializing in liquid fuel rocket engines. Since the 1950s, it has been involved in rocket engine manufacture totaling some 52 different types. GDL-OKB remains in existence as the primary Russian rocket engine design facility, under the new Energomash name. Among its associated production facilities is the NII Mashinostroyenia in Nizhnaya Salda which has manufactured the RD-120 Energia rocket engine.
Isayev OKB, KB Khimmash named after A.M. Isayeva--The Design Bureau for Chemical Engineering was first established in 1943 under Aleksei M. Isayev and was closely associated with early development efforts on tactical missile rocket engines. The bureau continues to develop ramjets and rocket engines for Russian missile programs.
Khimavtomatika (Kosberg) KB--The Kosberg OKB in Voronezh has been primarily involved in the development of second and third stage engines for ballistic missiles and space boosters. Recently, it has been responsible for work on rocket engine design, including the hydrogen engine on the Energia space booster. It is associated with the Voronezh Machine Building Plant.
Klimov Design Bureau (Leningrad NPO)--The Klimov Design Bureau designs jet and gas turbine engines. It was long known as the Isotov KB, but reverted to the Klimov name in 1983. The Klimov KB has been responsible for the RD-33 on the MiG-29, and the GTD-1250 in the T-80U tank. Series production of its engines is undertaken at the Krasny Oktiabr Plant in Leningrad, the Baranov Motor PO in Omsk, and the Kaluga Motor Building PO. Kaluga is responsible for T-80 turbine engine production, as well as some aircraft engines, such as those for the IL-114 airliner. The associated Kaluga Turbine Plant PO is responsible for naval turbines and submarine propulsion.
N. Kuznetsov OKB; Trud NPO, Kuibyshev NPO--Located in Samara, the Nikolai Kuznetsov OKB has been involved in the development of jet aircraft engines and liquid fuel rocket engines for ballistic missiles. The design bureau controls the neighboring Frunze Motor Building Plant, which serves as an experimental production facility for initial series production of the missile engines. In many cases, series production takes place at the Metallist plant, also in Samara. Recent military propulsion programs include the NK-321 for the Tu-160 Blackjack bomber.
Omsk Aviation Engine Design Bureau (MKB)--This bureau was formed in 1956 to design small turbine engines for aviation applications. Its products include the GTD-1, GTD-3, GTD-5 (Kamov Ka-25 helicopter), TVD-10 (Be-30 transport), TVD-10 (Polish W-3 Sokol helicopter), TV-0-100 (Ka-126 helicopter), VGTD-43 (Tu-204).
Perm Aviadvigatel NPO (Perm Motor Building Plant im. Ya. M. Sverdlova)--This is the engine design bureau formerly called the Soloviev OKB and Shvetsov OKB. It has designed a wide range of aircraft and helicopter engines. The associated production plant also manufactures Proton first stage rocket engines as well as their aviation propulsion systems. Its current military powerplants include the D-30F6 on the MiG-31.
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Polet NPO--This facility, formerly called the Omsk Aviation Plant, was previously involved in the manufacture of military and civil aircraft. It manufactured the Tu-2 bomber and Yak-9 fighters during World War 2, and the Tu-104 airliner in the postwar years. It was subsequently assigned to missile and space production, specializing in missile engines. The facility was involved in the production of the R-5 and R-12 missiles. Other products have included the RD-170, RD-211 and RD-216 rocket engines. Among its recent products have been engines used on the Energiya space booster and Buran space shuttle. It also manufactures satellites, and in 1993 began manufacturing the An-74 transport aircraft.
Rybinsk Motor-Building Design Bureau--Rybinsk has been most closely associated with VTOL-related engines such as the RD-38 on the Yak-38 Forger. Its RD-41 is currently used on the Yak-141 Freestyle. It has also developed commerical jet engines, including those for the Tu-144 Soviet SST.
Saturn Design Bureau--The Saturn design bureau, formerly known as the Lyulka KB, develops turbojet and turbofan engines for military and civil aircraft. Recent military types include the AL-21F for the Su-24 Fencer and the AL-31F for the Su-27 Flanker. Production is undertaken at a plant co-located with the the design facility.
Soyuz MKB--This bureau in Tushino traces itself back to the wartime Mikulin design bureau and the postwar NII-125. Its current efforts include the R-79V-300 vectored thrust turbofan for the Yak-41 Freestyle and RDK-300 turbofan for RPV and missile use, the R-11-300 on the MiG-21, and others. Many of its aircraft engines were built at Ufa. It has also been involved in the development of solid-fuel rocket engines for tactical missiles since 1951.
Missiles
Russian Missile Design Institutes--Missile development is more diversified in Russia than in the aircraft industry, and was split between at least three ministries mainly due to historical anomalies. The TsNIIMash (Central Scientific Research Institute of Machine Building), formerly NII-88, is the primary advanced research institute for the missile and space booster industry and serves a similar function to the TsAGI in the aviation industry; TsAGI is still heavily involved in tactical missile research (such as AAM and ASMs) manufactured by the plants of the former Ministry of Aviation Production. TsNII Tochmash is responsible for tactical Army missiles including ATGMs and tactical ballistic missiles. There are several other NIIs heavily involved in missile sub-component development including the Agat NII (radar seekers).
Two major missile design centers were lost to Russia with the dissolution of the USSR: the Yuzhmash complex (and associated Yangel design bureau) in Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine, which was the USSR's principal ICBM manufacturer and developer, and the AiP NPO/NII-885 (now called Kharton) in Kharkov, Ukraine, which was one of the two Soviet ICBM inertial guidance development/production facilities.
Almaz NPO--Almaz, based in Moscow, is an electronics firm specializing in air defense missile system integration. It has been primarily involved in strategic air defense systems, starting with the S-75 (SA-2) and including the recent S-300P (SA-10).
Altair GosNPO--Altair is not a missile design bureau but an integrator for naval missile systems, especially air defense systems. It has been responsible for nearly every Soviet ship-mounted SAM system, and has become involved in some anti-ship missile systems as well. Its fire control radars are often manufactured at the Znamaya Truda plant in Saratov.
Antey NPO--Antey, like Almaz and Altair, is an air defense missile system integrator rather than a missile designer and is based in Moscow. Antey developed the first mobile tactical SAM, the Krug (SA-4), and its recent efforts have included the Tor (SA-15) and S-300V (SA-12).
Bazalt NPO--This development and production center is responsible for the design of Russian aircraft bombs, including cluster bombs with guided submunitions. It is also responsible for the development and manufacture of rocket propelled grenades and similar weapons. Production facilities include the Sibselmach PO in Novosibirsk.
Fakel Machine Building Design Bureau named after P.D. Grushin--Fakel in Khimki has tra***ionally been Russia's main developer of strategic air defense missiles since the S-75 (SA-2 Guideline), as well as exo-atmospheric ABM systems. It has often worked with Almaz, which provided the associated radars and fire control systems. Its recent designs include the S-300P (SA-10) and Tor (SA-15). Many of its missiles were produced at the Avangard MMPO in Moscow and the Leningrad Severniy Plant in St. Petersburg.
Instrument Machine Building Design Bureau (KB Priborstroyeniya/KBP)--This bureau was formed in 1962 at Tula to develop advanced weapons; Arkadiy G. Shipunov was appointed general designer in 1982. The bureau has been involved in anti-tank missiles, aircraft gun systems, laser-guided projectiles, and naval and army air defense systems. The bureau was also responsible for the development of the Drozd active tank defense system in the 1970s and 1980s. The Kovrovskiy Zavod im. V. A. Degtaryeva in Kovrov manufactures many of its designs including the 125mm Refleks guided tank projectiles, and AT-5 missiles. The AT-4 and AT-5 are also manufactured at Zlatoust. Its aircraft guns are manufactured at the neighboring Tula Machine Building Plant PO (Tulamashzavod im. V. M. Ryabikova).
KBSM Design Bureau for Special Machine Building--Located in St. Petersburg, this design bureau began the development of submarine ballistic missile launch silos in 1955, and later became Russia's primary center for the development of hardened ICBM launch silos, rail launchers for ICBMs and other specialized launch systems.
Machine Building Design Bureau (KBM)--The Machine Building Design Bureau in Kolomna, formerly headed by S.P. Nepobidimy, develops a wide range of missiles including tactical ballistic missiles (Tochka: SS-21); manportable air defense missiles (Strela-2M/SA-7; Igla/SA-16); and anti-tank missiles (Malyutka/AT-3; Shturm/AT-6; Ataka/AT-9). The Ataka missile is manufactured in Zlatoust; anti-tank and manportable SAMs at Izhevsk and Kovrov, the SS-21 is manufactured at Pavlograd in Kazakhstan. Its latest ballistic missile program is the Iskander (SS-X-26), intended to replace the obsolete Scud tactical ballistic missile.
Machine Building Design Bureau named after V.P. Makeyev--Located in Miass, the Makayev bureau is Russia's primary developer of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. It was formerly involved in the development of tactical ballistic missiles such as the Elbrus (Scud), but has largely abandoned this field to the KB Mashinostroyenie in Kolomna. The associated SLBM manufacturing plants are at Zlatoust and Krasnoyarsk.
Machine Building Scientific Production Assn. named after V.N. Chelomey (NPO Mashinstroyenie ; OKB-52)--The V.N. Chelomey design bureau in Reutov has been involved in a wide range of missile systems including anti-satellite, ICBM, ASW and anti-ship missiles, as well as reconnaissance satellite design. Past space programs included the Polet and Proton satellites, Salyut-2, -3 and -5 space stations and the Almaz remote sensing satellites. Its primary missile development efforts at the moment are oriented toward anti-ship missile design including the Bastion/Yakhont. It developed the Proton space booster, but many of its former space efforts were split off with the formation of the Khrunichev NPO in 1993.
Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology (MITT)--The Nadiradze design bureau is a spin-off from Korolev's OKB-1 in Kaliningrad specializing in solid-fuel ballistic missiles. Its most recent efforts have centered around the Topol-M (SS-27) mobile ICBM and its derivatives. Its solid fuel rocket designs have often been associated with the Biysk Chemical Plant where much of its testing is conducted. The associated missile manufacturing plant is at Votkinsk.
Novator Design Bureau--Located in Ekaterinburg (Sverdlovsk), Novator has its origins in L. Lyulev's anti-aircraft design bureau. The firm has developed naval anti-ship cruise missiles (SS-N-21 for the Alfa-class nuclear attack submarine); anti-submarine warfare missiles (SS-N-15, etc.); air defense missiles (SA-4, SA-12); and air-to-air missiles (KS-172). Its main production center is the Kalinin Machine Building Plant, which is also in Ekaterinburg.
Precision Engineering Design Bureau (kB Tochmash Nudelman OKB-16)--This Moscow design bureau is publicly known for its aircraft cannon design, but since the 1960s has been involved in missile design--including anti-tank guided missiles and air defense missiles. Its designs include the Strela-1 (SA-9) and the Strela-10 (SA-13).
Raduga Machine Building Design Bureau--Located in Dubna, Raduga is Russia's main developer of large air-to-surface missiles and large anti-ship missiles. Under Berezniak, it developed the widely used P-15 (SS-N-2 Styx). Among its recent designs is the 3M80 Moskit (SS-N-22) anti-ship missile. Its civil products include the new Burlak air-launched space booster. Many of its missiles are produced at the nearby Dubna Machine Building Plant.
Region GNPP--Region is an ordnance firm that in recent years has been involved in the development of precision guided weapons including aircraft-launched torpedoes and laser-guided bombs.
Transport Machine Building KB named after V.P. Barmin (GSKB)--Located at the former Kompressor Plant in Moscow, the former Barmin KB is the main design bureau for ICBM and space booster launch facilities and developed the launch systems for the R-7/Vostok/Soyuz and UR-500 Proton space boosters.
Surface-to-air missiles (from top) Favorit, 9M96E2 and 9M96E.
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Uran NPO--Uran NPO is Russia's primary torpedo design bureau. It is an amalgamation of elements of TsNII Gidropribor and the Dvigatel Zavod in 1976. As in the past, the Gidropribor Institute was primarily responsible for design, while the Dvigatel Plant remains the production facility. The NPO's main test facility was located at Feodosiya on the Black Sea, but deep water tests are conducted at Kakhadka on the Pacific coast. NPO Uran works with the Lyulev and Raduga bureaus for the development of torpedo-carrying missiles.
VNIIEF (Vse-soyuzniy Nauchno-Issledovatelniy Institut Eksperimentalnoi Fiziki); (KB-11, Arzamas-16)--VNIIEF is the current name for the Soviet Union's first nuclear bomb development center. Headed by Chief Designer Yuli Khariton, the KB-11 developed the first Soviet atomic bombs, and its first thermonuclear bombs. It also developed the first nuclear warheads for missiles including the R-5M, R-7 and R-11 warheads. It is still heavily involved in nuclear weapons research.
VNIITF (Vse-soyuzniy Nauchno-Issledovatelniy Institut Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki); Chelyabinsk-70--The Chelyabinsk-70 design bureau in Kasli was set up in 1954 as the Soviet Union's second nuclear weapons development lab. Since 1954, it has been heavily involved in missile warhead development, and has been responsible for the many Soviet nuclear warhead designs.
Vympel Central Scientific Production Association--Located in Dubna, Vympel is a consolidation of several firms involved in the development of strategic defense systems including both conventional ABMs and directed energy weapons.
Vympel State Design Bureau--Located in Moscow, Vympel is Russia's primary design bureau for air-to-air missiles and has been responsible for nearly all designs since the KS-1 (AA-1 Alkali) in the 1950s. Its missiles have been produced at the Kommunar MMPP in Moscow and the Artem MMPP in Kiev, Ukraine.
Zvezda Design Bureau--Located in Kaliningrad-B near Moscow, Zvezda is Russia's primary developer of tactical air-to-surface missiles starting with the Grom (AS-7 Kerry). Its associated production facility is the Strela Production Association and their missiles are marketed by the Spetstekhnika Joint Stock Company.
Spacecraft and Launchers
Arsenal NPO--Arsenal, located in St. Petersburg, has descended from the cannon foundries created by Peter the Great in 1711. In the missile field, the design bureau developed the R-31 (SS-N-17), the first Soviet solid-fuel SLBM, and has been extensively involved in the development and manufacture of ship- and submarine-based missile launch systems. In the space field, Arsenal was involved in the development of radar and electro-optical naval surveillance satellites (RORSAT, EORSAT) as well as many satellite components used in both military and civilian applications.
Energia NPO named after S.P. Korolev--Formerly OKB-1 located in the Moscow suburb of Kaliningrad renamed Korolev in 1996, Energia is Russia's primary space booster and space systems developer. The bureau was heavily involved in early missile development, but largely turned to space products by the end of the 1960s after spinning off several missile design bureaus. It has been responsible for the R-7 booster spin-offs such as the Soyuz and Vostok, many of Russia's manned spacecraft, the Buran space shuttle and the Mir space station.
Foton Central Specialized Design Bureau (TsSKB)--The Foton design bureau was established in 1958 in Kuibyshev (Samara), and is part of the larger TsSKB in the Progress Machine Building Plant. The TsSKB was established in 1958 under the direction of M.V. Kozlov *****pport the OKB-1 in the manufacture of R-7 space boosters and subsequently took responsibility for their further development. The Progress Machine building plant was formerly called Aviation Plant No. 1, and it has been associated with the manufacture of R-7-derived space boosters. Today, the Foton KB is primarily involved in satellite development, including the original Zenit military reconnaissance satellites as well as current generations of spy satellites. The facility is one of the largest developers and manufacturers of military and civilian satellites, being responsible for about a third (870+) of those launched. The Progress plant has produced over 1500 R-7/Vostok/Soyuz space boosters and is now developing the Rus space booster.
Khrunichev State Space NPO--The Salyut design bureau was primarily involved in spacecraft development. Among its programs is the Kristall portion of the Mir space station. The Khrunichev plant in Fili was formerly associated with the Chelomey design bureau and was responsible for Proton space booster manufacture. In June 1993, these two Fili-based facilities were combined into a new NPO which is now developing the Angara space booster and a host of other space systems. It is currently manufacturing the Proton-KM booster.
Kometa OKB--Located in Moscow, Kometa is the primary Russian firm for the development of anti-satellite systems. It has also been involved in the development of ocean surveillance RORSATs, space-based early warning satellites, and ballistic missile launch detection satellites.
Krasnaya Zvezda NPO--This facility in Moscow has been the main contractor for nuclear space powerplants (such as the Topaz) in cooperation with the Institute of Physics and Power Engineering in Obninsk where the systems are designed.
Lavochkin NPO; OKB-577, (Babakin Research Institute)--Although best known for its WW2 fighter designs, the Lavochkin OKB at Aviation Plant No. 301 in Khmiki was switched to air defense missile development in 1948-49. Lavochkin moved into the space satellite field in the late 1950s; air defense missile programs were largely taken over by Petr Grushin (MKB Fakel). After Lavochkin's death, the bureau was taken over by Georgii N. Babakin, and was involved primarily in the development of satellites. The Babakin team was responsible for the Luna, Venera, Mars and Zond families of interplanetary satellites. In the military realm, it was involved in the development of the Oko series of early warning satellites.
Molniya NPO--Molniya NPO is an off-shoot of the Mikoyan design bureau. Although involved for a short time in air-to-air missile design (R-60/AA-8 Aphid), the bureau has been involved mainly in manned spacecraft design including the Buran space shuttle; it is associated with the Tushino Machine Building Plant.
NPO Prikladnoi Mekhaniki; NPO-PM, Reshetnev OKB--This design bureau and plant is the primary military and civilian communications satellite facility and is located in Zelenogorsk in the closed city of Krasnoyarsk-26. It has designed and manufactured a wide range of satellites including various military communication satellites, data relay, navsats, early warning, Molniya 1 and 3, Ekran, Gorizont, Glonass, Luch, and Raduga satellites. It has also developed navigation satellites (Tsikada and Glosnass) and geodesy satellites (Geoik and Etalon).
Progress OKB--This design bureau in Samara and its associated plant have been involved in the development of spacecraft, notably the Progress-type cargo spacecraft.
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Military Electronics
Argon NII--Located in Moscow, the Argon NII develops on-board computers and electronic systems for aircraft, missile and spacecraft applications.
Astrofizika NPO--Astrofizika, based in Moscow, is one of Russia's largest development centers for tactical and strategic directed energy weapons, mainly lasers.
Nll Avtomatika--Nll Avtomatika and the associated NPO Avtomatika in Moscow are Russia's primary developers and manufacturers of strategic C3I equipment. These include encryption equipment for the national command authority, and strategic weapons command and control system. Avtomatika develops and produces encrypted telephones comparable to the US STU-3 system.
Briansk Elektromechanical Plant--The Briansk Electromechanical Plant manufactures a variety of vehicle-mounted electronic warfare equipment, electronics and electronics shelters, including the SPN-4 electronic jamming system mounted on the KAMAZ-4310 truck.
Elektropribor Zavod--This plant is primarily involved in the manufacture of Army and aircraft radio and communication equipment. Its radios are used on Russian strategic bombers.
Fazotron NPO--Fazotron (formerly NII Radiostroyeniya) is Russia's principal radar design bureau for fighter radars. It develops systems for both aviation and ground-based applications. Recent programs include the Zhuk radar for the MiG-29M, the Kopyo radar for the MiG-21I upgrade, and the radar on the 2S6 Tunguska air defense vehicle.
Gidropribor--Located in St. Petersburg, Gidropribor is Russia's primary development center for sonars and other anti-submarine warfare sensors. It has also been involved in the development of a variety of ASW weapons including mines.
Istok Electronics Plant--Located in Fryasino, the Istok NPO is one of Russia's largest radar and electronics development centers and is an outgrowth of NII-160. In recent years, it has also been involved in laser development. The Zaslon phased array radar on the MiG-31 was developed by Istok.
Leninets NPO--Leninets, in St. Petersburg, produces airborne radars and other radio-electronics equipment, and aircraft computers. It has been Russia's main developer of bomber radars including the Rubin on the Tu-16 and the Orion on the Su-24. It has an associated experimental plant in Gatchina.
LOMO Leningrad Optical Mechanical Enterprise--This electro-optical research center has been responsible for a wide range of surveillance devices, IR missile seekers, space cameras, electro-optical sensors and laser systems; the design center is linked to several electro-optical plants in the St. Petersburg area.
Nitel NPO--The Nizhni Novgorod Television Plant is one of Russia's main air surveillance radar development centers and production facilities and one of the largest radar plants in the world. It developed and manufactured the P-12, P-14, and P-18 radars and is now manufacturing the 55Zh6 mobile 3-D "anti-Stealth" air surveillance radar.
Penza Simulator Design Bureau (Era PKBM)--Penza is Russia's largest development center for civil aviation and helicopter simulator applications.
NPP Polyot --Polyot in Nizhni Novgorod is the primary Russian manufacturer of aircraft radio communications equipment including antennas, transmitters, receivers and data processing equipment. It also manufactures air traffic control centers.
Popov Plant (ZiP ANPO: Zavod named after Popova Arednoe NPO)--The Popov Plant in Nizhni Novgorod is Russia's largest aviation radio communications facility, specializing in fixed and mobile radio ground stations. Among its Army radio systems are the Kristall, Yadro-1, Yadro-2, Kashtan, R-864.
NII Priborostroeniya (NIIP)--Located in Zhukovskiy, this is one of the original Russian radar development centers. In the 1960s, it was involved in the development of the Liana radar system for the Tu-126 AWACS, and the Periskop surveillance radar system. Production work has been undertaken by the Elektromash plant, and modification work by the Gorizont KB. NIIP has also been the integrating design bureau in the development of medium range air defense missiles such as the 2K12 Kub (SA-6 Gainful), Buk-1M/Gang (SA-11 Gadfly), primarily in connection with the radar systems and guidance seekers. It is also involved in the development of aircraft weapons systems for the MiG-31 and Su-27.
Radio NPO--Established in 1953 under the Ministry of Communication, it has been involved in radio development, including space communications such as the Gorizont program.
JOHN FRICKER
Leninets NPO's Khishnik phased-array radar antenna.
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Radiopribor NPO--This association of electronics firms (centered in Kazan, Tatarstan) includes the Sviyaga plant, Radiopribor factory and Radio Electronics Research and Scientific Institute. It develops and manufactures much of Russia's air force, ground forces and naval IFF systems, including the current 60P series.
Salyut MPO--This is the former Soviet Union's primary naval radar design bureau. It designed the early Gyuys-2 naval radar as well as most subsequent types including the current Polyma, Fregat-MA and Podberezovik types.
Skala VNIIT (All-Russian Radio Engineering Scientific Research Institute)--Located in Moscow, this is one of Russia's main radar development centers and was an outgrowth of NII-17. Among its products are the Kasta-2E2 (39N6) and Kasta-2E1 (51U6) air defense surveillance radars. This institute also develops major SAM radars, including the radars associated with the S-300 air defense system.
Urals Optical Mechanical Plant--Located in Ekaterinburg, the UOMZ is Russia's main developer and manufacturer of aircraft-based laser target designators and electro-optical sighting equipment such as the OEPS-29 and OEPS-27 IRST systems on the MiG-29 and Su-27 fighters.
Utes NPO--This design bureau and the associated Lianzovo Electromechanical Plant near Moscow have combined to form one of Russia's major developers and producers of air defense (P-37, 76N6, etc.) and air traffic control radars as well as air traffic control systems.
NPO Vega-M MNIIP (Scientific and Research Institute of Instrument Engineering)--Located in Moscow, NPO Vega-M has been involved in the development of advanced radars, including the Shmel radar system on the A-50 Mainstay AWACS, and the Sabla and Shompol radars on the MiG-25R. This NPO is affiliated with the NII-Priborstroyenie.
Vektor NPO--Located in Ekaterinburg, this amalgamation of the Ekaterinburg Elektroavtomatiki Plant and the Peleng Design Bureau develops C3I systems, military tactical computers and other advanced military electronics such as the Zoopark artillery reconnaissance system and Ulybka meteorological radar. It has developed and manufactured many of the major mobile air defense C3I systems including Senezh and Rubezh.
Zenit NPO--Located in Moscow, Zenit specializes in the development of electronic warfare countermeasures. These include "Hot Brick" systems such as the L-166 Ispanka on the Mi-24 and Mi-28 helicopters, as well as the Shtora-1 ATGM guidance jammer for tanks.
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Hay wá ta. Các tập đoàn khác đều có wẹp tiếng Anh kỹ lắm. Mà mấy ổng Nga ngố chẳng hỉu sao làm wẹp toàn tiếng Nga, tìm đến là khổ. Họ giỏi phầm mềm, trên wẹp họ có cái tự dịch nhưng toàn lỗi.
Em đọc tiếng Nga tồi lắm. À bác có biết cái Kublinka ở Moscow không? Không hiểu nó là cái kho hay bảo tàng nữa. Em tìm sách không có, hỏi mấy ông bên đó về cũng không được.