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Guide to Debating ​

This is a summary of many sites I found about how to debate as well as parts of my own experience debating throughout high school.

The Debate is a contest between two teams, each of three members, arguing a subject of discussion. This is an affirmative statement that is capable of being argued from either the affirmative or negative viewpoint.

The object of each team, the affirmative (government) and the negative (opposition) alike, is to convince the audience that they have the most persuasive argument. To win the debate certain rules must be complied with and the Adjudicator (or judge) will take this into account in ad***ion to the soundness of argument and skill in presentation.

Debating should be fun. It should be approached by accepting the challenge to persuade an audience of unbiased onlookers. It is an excellent way of improving speaking skills and is particularly helpful in providing experience in developing a convincing argument.

Activities

1)List other activities that require you to make an argument
2) Using a dictionary, define; affirmative, negative, argument,
audience, convince, rebuttal

What is Involved in a Debate?

The things needed for a successful debate are people to debate, a debating topic, an adjudicator (judge) and an audience.

There are three people on the affirmative team and three people on the negative team.

The teams each need to decide on the speaking order for their speakers, the team strategy and the allocation of subject matter to each speaker (who is going to talk about what).

Speakers'' Roles

General

Each speaker is required to face the audience, recognise the Chairperson and then address the audience - speakers should avoid addressing the presentation to the opposing team, it is the audience and adjudicators that they should be seeking to persuade.

Speakers should open with a strong sentence to gain audience attention. The address should have clearly recognisable points that should be strongly summarised. Speakers need to finish within the allocated time as judges will not take into account any points made after the time has expired.

The roles of the individual speakers are summarised as follows:

1. Leader of Affirmative
A. Define the meaning of the moot clearly and precisely. The definition should be one which will meet with general acceptance. This avoids having the debate degenerate (breaking down) into one on the meaning of the topic rather than on the arguments presented by the two teams.

B. Give a general outline of the team''s case and indicate the aspects of the subject to be discussed by each of the team members.
E.g.: "We are affirming the proposition that marriage leads to divorce. As leader I shall show that only married people become divorced. My second speaker will indicate the reasons for this. And my third speaker will show that single people are free from the problems that lead to divorce.

C. Develop the introductory arguments for the side - this should represent some 60% of the address.

D. Summarise.

2. Leader of Negative

A. Consider the definition given by the leader of the affirmative. If it is fair and reasonable it should be accepted - it will be difficult to create a viable alternative to a reasonable definition put forward by the affirmative. Remember, it is the topic which is to be debated, not the definition. However, if the affirmative definition is selective and unreasonable it is possible to appeal to reason and seek to have the subject debated on what would be generally understood by the wording of the topic.

B. Outline the team''s case and the allocation of each speaker''s role.

C. Rebut (argue against) any major points put up by the leader of the affirmative which can be effectively countered.

D. Be sure to introduce points that support the negative case.

E. Summarise.

3. Second Affirmative

A. Re-emphasise major point of your leader.
B. Develop major points of team''s case - this is the major role of the second speaker and should occupy 75% of the speaking time.
C. Rebut any major points put up by the leader of the negative that can be effectively countered.
D. Summarise

4. Second Negative

A. Develop rebuttal of previous two affirmative speakers (up to 50% of speaking time).
B. Add arguments supporting negative view.
C. Support own leader''''s case. summarise.

5. Third Affirmative

A. Develop rebuttal of previews two negative speakers (a: least 50% of speaking time).
B. Add final arguments supporting affirmative case.
C. Support previous affirmative speakers.
D. Summarise.

6. Third Negative

A. Develop rebuttal of all affirmative speakers arguments (70% of speaking time). Effectively destroy affirmative arguments.
B. Add final arguments supporting negative case.
C. Summarise.

7. Affirmative Leader''s Reply

A. Rebut any major points of negative third speaker and leader''s reply.
B. Convincingly summarise own team''s arguments - no new material allowable.
C. Forcefully summarise previous rebuttal of negative case - no new material allowable.
D. Persuasive conclusion to convince audience of superiority of affirmative ease.

8. Negative Leader''s Reply

A. Convincing summary of own team''s case - no new material allowable.
B. Forceful summary of rebuttal already presented - no new material allowable.
C. Persuasive conclusion to convince audience of superiority of negative case.

Note : In most high school debates there is no ''''reply'''' after the third speakers have had their speeches.

Debating Speeches

Teams must attack as well as rebut. Teams need to engage in argument and counter-argument on the subject under discussion.

Humour can appeal if relevant and will maintain audience interest in the argument being presented.

Rebuttal should be soundly based and effectively counter the opposing argument, but unsupported rebuttal will not be effective.

Delivery

Stance & Appearance

Clothing and grooming are important in that they convey strong impressions upon the audience. Distracting mannerisms will reduce the effectiveness of the presentation.

Voice

Speakers must be heard - attention must be paid to the site of the hall and surroundings. Pronunciation and articulation are important to ensure the speaker is understood. A monotonous tone quickly bores an audience and, as a result, the speech will lose impact.

Gesture

Movement of arms, body, face and hands for emphasis can add dramatically to the presentation but meaningless, nervous and repetitive gestures should be avoided.

Persuasion

Both material and method combine to influence an audience. Appearance, enthusiasm, humour, personality and sincerity all contribute to the persuasiveness of a speaker. The speaker needs to be fully understood throughout the entire presentation to achieve a persuasive result. Anecdotes, emphasis and repetition all combine to help get the message across. Rhetorical questions are dangerous as they invite hostile interjections.

Construction

As in all speeches, there needs to be a structure with:
, an arresting opening to gain the audiences attention;
, the body of the speech containing:
, the speakers points of argument,
, rebuttal of the opposing argument where appropriate; ·
, a strong, positive peroration (or conclusion; which summarises the whole presentation.

Team Work

The speakers for each team must combine to present a cohesive argument. Any material which contradicts a previous speaker of the same side helps destroy the team argument. Each speaker should cover the general area allocated by the leader in his introduction. Marks allocated for team work can help swing the debate in favour of the well organised team and win the debate for them.

Preparation for the Debate

Debaters must;

Review your case: Can it be summarized in on sentence? Do the arguments actually support the case statement? Is there any contradiction? Know your opposition: What are their strengths? What are their weaknesses?

Brainstorming

This involves a group of people getting together to discuss a motion and come up with ideas. The group meets in a room and trash out the various issues involved from a definition and line to examples and the other sides possible strategy. One member writes down all the ideas and this is best done on a blackboard so a tutorial room is sometimes used.

Case Building

The first step in case-building is to determine the sense or spirit of the resolution. This is done by understanding the general thrust of the resolution or by defining the key phrases of a resolution.

The second stage of case-building is defining terms. At this point you should be able to define your case in one sentence. This fulfills the key components of case-building: it expresses the spirit of the resolution, is a normative statement and provides a clear definition of what the government team is proposing. Of course this statement will be elaborated upon to clarify all details, but the objectives are clear.

During the debate

First and foremost: take notes! Judging a debate is rather like going to lecture, and at the end of it all you''''re going to want to refer back to something to give you a sense of what just happened. It will also reassure those whom you are judging that you are following every pearl of wisdom that they produce with all due diligence and care. Any method that makes sense to you is beneficial but point form is useful.

TOPICS

THAT advertising is necessary
THAT America is an evil empire
THAT attendance at school should be voluntary
THAT Barbie should be banned
THAT beauty is skin deep
THAT capital punishment should be reintroduced for specific offences
THAT Coke is the symbol of our age
THAT equality is a myth
THAT euthanasia is a human right
THAT life is easier for men
THAT Marge is a good role model for women
THAT men are unfair to women
THAT modern advertising creates unrealistic expectations
THAT money is corrupting sports
THAT parents should pay for the crimes of their children
THAT people are the play-things of the media
THAT science is a menace
THAT society is sick
THAT sport has become an obsession
THAT television is a destructive influence
THAT television is a drug
THAT television is a good influence on the home
THAT television is manipulating our lives
THAT television is the opiate of the masses
THAT the car is a curse
THAT video games are a waste of time
THAT women get the attention they deserve
THAT common sense is uncommon
THAT fashion is tyranny
THAT it is better to be a follower than a leader
THAT it is better to be second
THAT justice is a myth
THAT knowledge is power
THAT the media have a positive influence on us
THAT celebrities are good role models
THAT women can do anything that men do
THAT smoking should be banned in nightclubs

cup79 sưu tầm

Brit: e*** lại cho dễ nhìn.

Được britneybritney sửa chữa / chuyển vào 00:21 ngày 30/01/2004

Guide to Essay Writing
All essays must begin with PLANNING A RESPONSE. Without a plan it is likely you will lose focus and divert from your original line of thought, thereby discussing irrelevant details, wasting time and losing marks for not answering the question.
1) The Question õ?" Unpacking the Topic
You need to work out the type of essay that you are being asked to answer. If the question contains words or phrases that you are not familiar with, you need to simplify the language so you do understand it. DEFINING TERMS can assist you in doing this. Most essays require you to define terms anyway. Once you understand the question you then proceed to decide how you intend to answer it. This often involves deciding what side of the argument you intend to pursue and then deciding which issues you will discuss *****pport your claim.
2) Evidence
What is evidence? Evidence is material which is used to prove (support) or disprove a claim. In relation to literature, examples of evidence include sections of text/quotes, quotes from the author, documented opinions of reputable critics, and published biographies and letters. The question to ask about evidence is whether or not it is valid, reliable and relevant to the argument you are trying to make.
3) Presenting your Argument
In the simplest terms, when presenting your argument you need to be LOGICAL and ANSWER THE QUESTION. It is essential to present a clear, sequential argument which is developed throughout the essay.
We can use the introduction/body/conclusion scaffold.
Introduction õ?" say how you intend to approach the question, define terms, outline the points you intend to elaborate on in the order you plan to tackle them (this shows that you have thought about how you will structure your argument).
Body õ?" take each point you have outlined in the introduction and discuss it using evidence *****pport the contention. If you are writing an essay asking you to õ?~discussõ?T an idea or a quote you must remember to consider the issue from a range of perspectives.
Conclusion õ?" This single paragraph pulls together the parts of your argument in a synopsis/summary, do not include new information here, it is often very similar to the introduction.
How Do I Write an Essay?
1. Look at the question õ?" think about whether you would feel comfortable answering that particular question or should you choose another one? Which topic do you know the most about?
2. Plan Your Response õ?" using the scaffold below, plan your essay response before you begin to write the actual essay
3. Write your essay based on your plan õ?" make sure *****pport everything you say with evidence from the text in the form of quotes, make sure to include a page reference for the quotes in brackets
4. E*** your Essay õ?" read over your essay checking for spelling errors, punctuation, grammar, does it make sense? Have you supported everything you have said? Have you used topic sentences at the start of your body paragraphs to link the topic to the question? Have you ended every body paragraph with a linking sentence that proves what you have said is relevant to the question?
5. Write your good copy and submit it for assessment
The Structure of Essays
Introduction
ù,ã Reference to question (simply restate the question in a way that shows whether you agree with it or not. E.g. If the question was õ?oBeto is the hero of the novel. Do you agree?õ? My very first sentence would either be õ?oBeto is the hero of the novelõ? or õ?oBeto is not the hero of the novelõ?. Other options might be õ?oBeto displays heroic qualities in the novel, however, other characters such as Isa and Andres also display heroic qualities and so they can all be considered heroes in the novelõ?)
ù,ã Definition of terms õ?" are there any terms you need to define in the question so that you understand what you are being asked to discuss? (e.g. in the õ?~heroõ?T question above, you would need to define what it means to be a hero in order to prove whether the characters were heroic or not)
ù,ã Outline of Points to Discuss õ?" think of at least 2 points you can use to prove your point and outline them
Body
ù,ã Take outlined point 1 from the introduction õ?" Discuss it in depth using evidence from the novel to prove your point, use a topic sentence to start the paragraph and a linking sentence to finish it
ù,ã Take outlined point 2 from the introduction õ?" Discuss it in depth using evidence from the novel to prove your point, use a topic sentence to start the paragraph and a linking sentence to finish it
Conclusion
ù,ã A summary of what you have said (points 1 and 2) to prove what you believe is correct. Do not simply say õ?oBecause of what has been discussed in the essay we can see it is correct to sayõ?Ư.õ? You MUST outline everything you have discussed. The conclusion is very similar to the Introduction in terms of content. Your final sentence should link everything you have said back to the question to prove you are correct.
Phen này ông quyỏt 'i buôn cỏằ'i Trên ... mỏĂng bao nhiêu 'ỏằâa giÊ trỏĐu. (Xin lỏằ-i cỏằƠ Tú)
Được britneybritney sửa chữa / chuyển vào 00:42 ngày 01/02/2004

Note Taking Skills ​

When we are doing research for an assignment, we need to refer to many different books to collect information. We do not have time to read these books cover to cover because they are so long and detailed. We need to learn note taking skills so that we can collect the essential information from books we have without wasting time.
The Process
1. Before we begin searching for information we must be very clear about the information we are searching for (i.e. What do we want to know? List this information or outline the information, list the questions you need to answer). Identify KEY WORDS.
2. If a book has a TABLE of CONTENTS ?" we can use the table to look up which section of the book would be the most useful for us
3. If the book has an INDEX page ?" we can locate even more specific information
When we locate the relevant pages, we do the following;
a) Look for clues as to what the information is about by reading HEADINGS and SUB-HEADINGS
b) We then read the FIRST LINE of each paragraph because this is the TOPIC SENTENCE for that paragraph (the topic sentence outlines what the paragraph will be about)
c) If the topic sentence if relevant we then read the paragraph. If the paragraph is long, you should read the first 2-3 sentences and then the last 2-3 sentences.
d) If what you have read is all relevant, then you read the whole paragraph
e) You then begin to take notes by SUMMARISING the paragraph in ONE SENTENCE and it must be in your OWN words. You do this by asking ?~What is the main point in this paragraph?T? Never copy directly from a text. (plagiarism)
f) You then move onto the rest of the paragraphs on that page and follow the same process.
g) Put each new point on a new line so that your notes are clear
h) Use abbreviations where possible (e.g. QLD ?"Queensland)
i) Looking at images on the pages can also give you an idea if the information on the page is relevant or not j) Before returning the book to the library, make sure you write down all the necessary information for the bibliography
Example Activity
1. Imagine you are doing a research project on the benefits of school today.
Select the most important information from the paragraphs below and summarise the content in one short paragraph that is no more than 5 lines long.
School is an important part of a teenager?Ts life. It provides an education for inquiring minds and it provides an appropriate environment for teenagers to get to know one another and to be able to learn things about themselves. In studies conducted by different organisations, teenagers have expressed many opinions about what they think the most important things about school are. Some identified the fact that school prepares you for your future and your career. Others identified school as the most important stage in their lives because it was where they were able to make friends and develop relationships with other people. Some teenagers who participated in the study said that an important part about school was the fact they had to learn to take responsibility for themselves and their actions because of the homework that needed to be completed and the assignments that needed to be done by specific dates.
School is a changing place. Many schools are expanding and are taking larger numbers of students each year. Many schools are also offering new subjects to their students. Languages such as French and Greek are now available for study. TAFE subjects are also allowing students to experience many more of the ?~hands-on?T activities that they can then take on as a career after school. This expansion has benefited schools and students in many different ways. Students who may not achieve in tra***ional subjects such as maths and science are now able to achieve in other areas which do suit them, such as the applied subjects. Subject in schools today are also more relevant to life in today?Ts society. For example, media studies has allowed students to understand how they media, such as television and radio, works and the impact it has on people in society today.
Phen này ông quyết đi buôn cối Trên ... mạng bao nhiêu đứa giã trầu. (Xin lỗi cụ Tú)
Được britneybritney sửa chữa / chuyển vào 00:29 ngày 18/02/2004

Public Speaking Skills
The is page consists of two sections. The first is a unit of work I developed based on the work of DeVito. This is followed by my own unit of work based on my own experiences and observations.
-------------------------------------------------
This is a unit of work based on the work of Joseph A. Devito from
Essentials of Human Communication (2nd ed.)(1996), Harper Collins, New York
I found this an invaluable text when at university and it has two very useful chapters on public speaking skills. I have based the unit on this work. Most of the theory is from this text but most of the activities have been designed by me to give students the chance to practice their skills.
A Unit of Work
Ten steps are necessary to prepare an effective public speech.
1. Select the Topic and Purpose
2. Analyze the Audience
3. Research the Topic
4. Formulate Your Line of Argument and identify the major points you will use *****pport it
5. Support the major propositions
6. Organise the Speech Materials
7. Word the Speech (and the title of the speech)
8. Construct the conclusion and the introduction
9. Rehearse the Speech
10. Deliver the Speech
1. Select the Topic and Purpose
The first step is to select the topic on which you will speak and the general and specific purposes you hope to achieve.
The Topic
The topic must be;
ù,ã worthwhile
ù,ã interesting to the audience
ù,ã interesting to you
ù,ã one which you feel confident or passionate about
ù,ã preferably one you have prior knowledge of or would be happy to go out and research
Finding Topics
At school you are usually given topics which you must speak about for oral presentations. If you are given the opportunity to choose your own topic, there are many places you could look for inspiration;
ù,ã the newspaper
ù,ã the library
ù,ã the internet
Suggestions for Speech Topics
Depending on your area of interest, the following are a list of topics you may present a speech on;
Entertainment õ?" industry, benefits, abuses, functions of media, movies : censorship, history, composition, festivals, role models
Communication õ?" advertising techniques, effects of, ethical, freedom of speech, subliminal, laws, violence, programming, audiences, propaganda, ratings
Politics õ?" governments, politicians õ?" public views of, newspapers, cover ups, power, conduct of, war, communism
People õ?" aggression, behaviour, alcoholism, suicide, depression, drugs and society, teenagers, families today, cultural differences, lifestyle choices, racism, feminism, prejudice, chauvanism
Activities 1. What would be five topics that you would be confident speaking about?
2. What prior experience with or knowledge of these topics do you have?
3. Predict what topics you think your best friend or a family member would be confident speaking about. What gives you this impression?
4. Using a recent newspaper, scan through the pages and identify 5 headlines for articles that you think would be interesting to use as speech topics (remember : you can interpret the topic in a different way from which it is presented in the paper)
5. After listing your 5 headlines, brainstorm 10 words you would associate with each concept (e.g. Sport for Winners õ?" Grant Hackett, Ian Thorpe, Olympics, gold, champion, success, effort, confidence, support, compete)
Identifying the General and Specific Purpose of the Speech
General Purpose
The two major kinds of speeches are the speeches of information and the speech of persuasion.
The informative speech creates understanding. It clarifies, enlightens, corrects misunderstandings, demonstrates how something works, or explains how something is structured.
The persuasive speech, on the other hand, influences attitudes or behaviors. It may strengthen existing attitudes or change the beliefs of the audience. It may also influence the audience to respond in a particular way.
Specific Purpose
The specific purpose of your speech identifies the information you intend to communicate (if an informative speech) or the attitude or behaviour you wish to change (if a persuasive speech). For example, your specific purpose in an informative speech might be:
ù,ã to inform my audience of the parts of a computer
ù,ã to inform my audience of the aboriginal dreamtime
ù,ã to inform my audience about changes to the constitution
Your specific purpose in a persuasive speech might be;
ù,ã to persuade my audience that cigarette advertising should be abolished
ù,ã to persuade my audience that the Richmond Tigers are the best AFL team in the league
Whether you intend to inform or persuade, your specific purpose should be narrow enough so you will be able to go into it in some depth. Your audience will benefit more from a speech that covers a small area in depth than from one that covers only the surface of a broad topic.
Activities
Identify the general purposes and the specific purposes of the sample speeches below. Discuss how you came to your conclusions.
1) The other candidate is a lying, manipulative man who has proven to you time and time again that he will say whatever he needs to say in order to accomplish his own goals and take whatever he wants from the people he is supposed to be protecting and representing. In his three years in office, he has failed to reduce unemployment, he has failed to improve the education system of our country and he has also failed to live up to the grandeur of his election promise to ensure the aged members of our society will receive more entitlements.
2) The concept of art is a very broad one. It can be interpreted in many ways. There are many types of art and there are many different ways of thinking about visual representation. One period in history which has been given great attention is the Renaissance. Another key concept that is also often explored by art critics is Abstract art.
3) The members of the board came to the decision that we should not invest in the venture. They agreed that it was a very risky time to be throwing such a large amount of money into the project when there was no way to guarantee there would be profits in the long term. The members of the board weighed up the benefits of being a part of the project against the risks that would be involved and decided to decline the offer to invest at this time.
4) Lung cancer, bad breath, yellow fingers and an awful smell that follows you everywhere you go. Is that what you want? Is that the way you would want to be defined and identified? I doubt that members of the opposite *** would find those attributes attractive!
2. Analyze Your Audience
If you are to inform or persuade an audience, you must know who they are. What do they already know? What would they want to know more about? What are their attitudes, opinions or beliefs? Where do they stand on the issues you want to address? Specifically, you will want to know the sociological characteristics (i.e. age, gender, religion) and the psychological characteristics (i.e. feelings, attitudes).
Audience Sociology
Age : What is the general age of the audience? How wide is the range? Does it include different age groups you will want to address differently? Does the age groups of the audience impose any restrictions on the topic you can present on or the language you will use?
Gender : Is the audience predominantly of one gender? Do men and women view the topic differently? If so, how? Do men and women have different backgrounds, experiences and knowledge about the topic? How will this influence the way you will develop the topic?
Religion : What is the dominant religious affiliation of the audience? (what religion do they believe in?) What might this mean in relation to my speech or the topic I have chosen?
Audience Psychology
Focus your psychological analysis on 3 main questions;
1) How willing is your audience?
If you face an audience willing to hear your speech, you will have a relatively easy time relating your speech to them. If, however, they are not very willing you might like to consider;
- securing their interest in your speech as early as possible
- relate what you are saying directly to them
- use supporting materials or examples that gain attention and secure interest
2) How favourable is your audience?
If you face an audience that is unfavourable towards your topic you might consider;
- building on similarities you share with them
- strive for small gains
3) How knowledgeable is your audience?
Listeners vary greatly in the knowledge they have. Some listeners will be very knowledgeable about some topics while others might be ignorant. Mixed audiences can be difficult ones to approach because you have to try to cater for everyone in your audience and keep them all interested. If your audience do not know a lot about the topic;
- do not talk down to your audience
- do not confuse a lack of knowledge with a lack of intelligence
If your audience is knowledgeable about the topic; - emphasize your credibility in dealing with the subject
- let the audience know you are aware of their knowledge and expertise
Activities
1) Consider the following topics and state who you think would be the ideal audience for a persuasive speech about the topics and why you think so
a) immigration
b) school hours being extended
c) politics
d) a new bike ramp being installed
e) õ?~Barbie dollsõ?T
2) Make up a list of terms that you think would be appropriate to use in a persuasive speech to the following audiences;
a) teenagers about the danger of drug use
b) adults about violence on television
c) older people about health care services
d) children about a new toy on the market
3. Research Your Topic
Research is essential if your speech is to be worthwhile. First read about the topic in a general resource such as an encyclopaedia or a news article so that you can start to think of ideas related to the topic. Other resources that may be useful can include;
- The Internet
- Newspapers, magazines
- CD ROMs
- Journals
- Videos
The idea behind searching for more information is to give you a broader understanding of the topic so that you can then choose the best information to present to your audience that will be interesting and informative for them.
It is a good idea to keep a list of notes that you take from your resources. Another option would be to take down key words as you identify them in each resource and build up a õ?~bankõ?T of words related to your topic.
4. Formulate Your Line of Argument and identify the major points you will use *****pport it
Your line of argument is the way in which you are going to tackle the topic (the way you will build the argument so that it is clear that what you are saying is correct).
You need to brainstorm all the arguments that you will be making during your speech. You then follow the following outline;
1) Eliminate points that seem the least important to your argument
2) Combine points that have a common focus
3) Select points that are most relevant to your audience
4) Use 2, 3 or 4 main points at most
5) Develop your main points so they are separate and distinct (clarity of your arguments is essential)
5. Support the major propositions
Now that you have identified your thesis and your major propositions, you need *****pport them.
In the informative speech, your support primarily amplifies õ?" describes, illustrates, defines, exemplifies õ?" the concepts you discuss.
In the persuasive speech, your support is proof õ?" material that offers evidence, argument, and motivational appeal and that establishes your credibility and reputation.
You support your propositions with reasoning from specific instances, from general principals, from analogy and from causes and effect. These may be thought of as logical support. Also, you support your position from motivational appeals.
Activity
What might be 2 arguments I could use if I were arguing the topic;
a) that smoking should be banned in all public places
b) that teenagers should be allowed to have a job when they turn 13
c) that McDonalds is better than Hungry Jacks
6.Organise Speech Materials
You must organize your materials if the audience is to understand and remember it. There are several patterns you can use to organise the body of a speech;
ù,ã Time Pattern
- organising major issues in your speech based on chronological order (the order in which they happened). You might begin with the past and work up to the present or the future. Or, you might start with the present and work backwards if you are trying to explain the relationships between stages of history. Most historical topics lend themselves to organisation by time pattern.
ù,ã Spacial Pattern
- This is patterning the main points of a speech on the basis of space. This means based on the amount of physical space between the topic and the audience. I.e. if I were presenting a speech about countries of the world, I would start with Australia first as it is where I am located and it is where the audience is located, then I would discuss New Zealand (our next door neighbour) and then Indonesia, then America etc. (starting with what is close first and working your way out).
ù,ã Topical Pattern
- This is perhaps the most popular way of organising speeches. It divides the speech into major topics. For example, if my broad topic were branches of government, I would break the speech into the major topics of taking each branch of the government one at a time and talking about them.
ù,ã Problem õ?"Solution Pattern
- A popular way of presenting the persuasive speech is to present the main ideas in terms of problem and solution. The speech is divided into two parts; one part deals with the problem and the other with the solution. By presenting the problems first (or the flaws with what already exists, or the flaws in certain ways of thinking about a topic) it shows you have clearly thought through the topic from many angles. By then presenting the õ?~solutionsõ?T, it shows the audience that you have given great thought to how to improve the problem through logical deduction rather than just saying that something should be done for the sake of saying something should be done. (it gives them alternatives, some of which they may not have realised before)
ù,ã The Motivated Sequence
- The motivated sequence is a pattern of arranging your information to motivate your audience to respond positively to your purpose. In the motivated sequence there are five steps;
- 1) Attention õ?" make your audience give you their undivided attention. You do this by starting with a phrase or a line or some other means of appealing to them from the very beginning (i.e. a poem, a well known phrase. E.g. I have a dreamõ?Ư.)
- 2) Need õ?" Here you prove that a need exists. The audience should feel that they need to learn or do something because this need exists. You can establish need by;
- stating the need or problem as it exists or will exist
illustrating the need using specific examples, illustrations or statistics
- pointing to how this need specifically affects your audience õ?" for example, their financial status, career goals
- 3) Satisfaction õ?" here you would present a õ?~solutionõ?T to satisfying the need. The audience should believe that what you are informing them or persuading them about will satisfy the need. This step usually involves two types of statements; 1. A clear statement of what you want the audience to believe, learn or do and, 2) a statement of how or why what you are asking them to learn, believe or do will lead to satisfying the need
- 4) Visualisation õ?" this intensifies the audienceõ?Ts feelings or beliefs. It takes the audience beyond the present place and time and helps then imagine the situation
- 5) Action õ?" Here you would tell the audience what they should do to to satisfy the need
Activity
Imagine you were to give a persuasive speech about the reasons the school uniform should be changed. Choose one of the above approaches and plan the speech you would give. Imagine it was to go for 3 to 4 minutes.
Phen này ông quyỏt 'i buôn cỏằ'i Trên ... mỏĂng bao nhiêu 'ỏằâa giÊ trỏĐu. (Xin lỏằ-i cỏằƠ Tú)

Public speaking​

(cont''ed)
Activities
Lets?Ts practice what we have learned so far;
1. For one of the following, narrow the topic sufficiently for a five minute informative or persuasive speech. Once you have selected a suitable limited subject, formulate a specific purpose, then plan the outline of your speech. - History - literature - Emotions - energy - Family - love - mass media - science - religion - war - entertainment - conflict - transportation
2. Try to predict the attitudes of your class members towards each of the following propositions by indicating how you think the majority of the class members feels about each. Write F for favourable, N for neutral or U for unfavourable;
a) The death penalty should be law in Australia b) People of all ***ual preferences should be allowed to adopt children c) Members of groups that have been discriminated against should be given preferential treatment in entrance to university d) Marijuana should be legalized for all people over the age of 18 e) Teenagers should be given the ability to vote in state elections
After you have recorded your responses, discuss the answers you gave with your classmates to see if your predictions were correct
3. Imagine you have been asked to get up at a year level assembly and give a persuasive speech about an issue that concerns teenagers. What would that issue be and what would you say about it?
7.Word the Speech
Speaking and writing need to be different. This is because listening and reading are different. In listening, you hear a speech only once. The speech must therefore be able to be understood after having heard it once. In reading, you can reread a text or look up an unfamiliar word in a dictionary.
Spoken language consists of shorter, simpler and more familiar language than does written language.
There are some elements to consider;
Clarity
Clarity in your speech should be a primary goal.
- Be economical ?" don?Tt waste words, avoid redundancies (unnecessary repetition) and meaning less words (e.g. more unique, we first began the discussion ?" the words in italics are unnecessary) - Use specific terms and numbers (e.g. don?Tt say ?~living thing?T, instead try ?~animal?T, ?~dog?T or ?~poodlê?T. Note that is gets more specific so the audience knows exactly what I am talking about) - Use short, familiar and commonly used terms (e.g. say ?~help?T instead of ?~assist?T, ?~show?T rather than ?~indicatê?T, ?~harmless?T rather than ?~innocuous?T)
Vividness
Select words that help make your ideas come alive in the listener?Ts minds.
- Use imagery ?" appeal to the audiences senses, especially their visual, au***ory and tactile senses. Make them hear, feel and see what you are talking about. - Visual Imagery ?" describe people or objects to create images the audience can see. E.g. height, weight, colour, size, shape, length - Au***ory imagery ?" use terms that describe the sounds to appeal to the audiencê?Ts sense of hearing. E.g. the car screeching, the wind whistling, the angry teacher roaring - Tactile Imagery ?" use terms referring to temperature, texture, to touch to create tactile imagery. E.g. Let the listeners feel the cool water running over their skin, the rough as sandpaper clothing.
Appropriateness
Appropriate language is consistent with your topic, your audience and your own self-image. It is language that does not offend anyone or make anyone feel uncomfortable. It is language that seems natural in the situation. So; avoid unfamiliar terms, speak at the appropriate level of formality and avoid slang, vulgar and offensive expressions (including ***ist or racist language).
Personal Style
Audiences favour speakers who use a personal rather than an impersonal style ?" who speak with them rather than at them.
- use personal pronouns such as ?~I?T, ?~mê?T, ?~hê?T,?Tshê?T or ?~you?T. Avoid expressions such as ?~one will realise that?T, or ?~you, the listeners?T - Direct questions to the audience ?" involve the audience by asking them questions, questions to think about (obviously not reply to while you are speaking!). It is a good idea to ask a question and then pause to give the audience time to refelect on their answer to it
Sentence Construction
Keep this in mind;
- favour short over long sentences ?" to keep the audience interested and to help them understand the point you are making. Short sentences are more forceful, leave more of an impact on the audience. - Favour active sentences over inactive sentences ?" this makes your sentences more vivid and livelier. E.g. instead of saying ?~The proposal was favoured by management?T say ?~Management favoured the proposal?T.
Activities
1. Change the following sentences from inactive to active;
a) The cake was eaten by the teenagers
b) A path of destruction was left by the twister
c) The bay had been polluted by toxic waste
d) A successful result was achieved by the teenager
2. What would be common words we could use in a speech to replace the following complex terms that would be difficult to understand (imagine the audience is a group of teenagers ?" you may need a dictionary to help you);
a) Obsequious e) pedantic b) Rotund f) eccentric c) favourable d) permitted
8. Construct the Conclusion and Introduction
Your conclusion and introduction are special because they can determine the effectiveness of your speech.
The Introduction
You try to accomplish two goals in your introduction; gain the audiencê?Ts attention and orient the audience with what you will be talking about.
, Gain attention ?" focus the audiencê?Ts attention on your speech so you can then try to maintain that attention throughout the speech
, Ask a question ?" questions are different from normal statements because they involve the audience. They indicate to the audience that you are talking directly to them and care about their responses
, Refer to recent happenings ?" The audience will pay more attention to you if you start talking about something they are familiar with (i.e. they may have heard it on the TV recently or their parents may have been talking about it)
, Use an illustration or dramatic or humourous story ?" as a way of hooking your audience
, Orient the audience ?" you should preview what you will talk about by;
, Giving the audience a general idea of your subject
, Giving an outline of your major propositions
, Identify the goal you hope to achieve
(don?Tt spend a lot of time outlining everything ?" sometimes it is better to get straight into it and start persuading or informing your audience)
The Conclusion
, Summarise what you have said in your speech
, Restate your Thesis ?" restate the essential point of your speech
, Restate Its Importance ?" Tell your audience again why your topic or thesis is so important.
, Restate Your Major Propositions ?" reiterate your main arguments or points
, Close ?" The conclusions second function is to provide closure, to give the speech a clear and definite end. Don?Tt leave your audience wondering if you are finished. Two popular ways of closing are using a quotation (that highlights what you have been talking about) or posing a challenge to the audience (e.g. so, get out there and make a difference)
The biggest hurdle to overcome when it comes to public speaking is stage fright! This is when someone has ?~butterflies?T in their stomach or has an attack of nervousness. People feel this way because they think that speaking in front of an audience is embarrassing and that they have something to fear by being the center of attention. There are ways to overcome this nervous reaction.
Are You Afraid to give a speech in public?
Complete the following questionnaire. Indicate the degree to which you agree to the statements by marking whether you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree or (5) strongly disagree with the statements.
1. I have no fear of giving a speech 2. Certain parts of my body feel tense and rigid when I give a speech 3. I feel relaxed when I give a speech 4. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I give a speech 5. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence 6. While giving a speech, I get so nervous that I forget facts I really know
Thinking Critically about Public Speaking Nervousness
To find your public speaking nervousness score use the following formula;
18 plus scores for items 1, 3, and 5
minus scores for items 2, 4, and 6
A score above 18 shoes some degree of nervousness. Most people score above 18 so if you scored relatively high, you are among the vast majority of people.
Five factors especially influence peoplê?Ts public speaking anxiety. Understanding these factors will help you control them and your fear of speaking;
1. Perceived novelty ?" new and different situations make us anxious. Therefore, gaining more experience in public speaking will lessen your anxiety.
2. Subordinate status ?" basically this means we think others are better than us or more clever than us when it comes to public speaking and so we get anxious about getting up in front of these people. Thinking positively about yourself and being thorough in preparation will reduce this kind of anxiety.
3. Conspicuousness ?" When you are the center of attention, your anxiety increases. Therefore, think of public speaking as a form of conversation. If you are comfortable speaking in small groups, such as your friendship groups, think of your audience as a small group.
4. Dissimilarity ?" When you feel you have little in common with your audience, you feel anxious. Try emphasizing your similarities with your audience as you plan your speech as well as during your presentation
5. Prior History ?" When you have a prior history of being apprehensive, you are more likely to become anxious. Positive public speaking experiences will help reduce this cause of anxiety.
Here are a few other suggestions to deal with and control speaker apprehension;
- Prepare and practice thoroughly ?" nothing will make it easier for you than knowing your content and being comfortable with it. People panic when they know they are not prepared well enough, so BE PREPARED - Try to rehearse in the room you will be giving your speech so that it will feel familiar to you when you get up in front of the audience in that room - Gain experience ?" experience will help speakers who feel any level of apprehension or anxiety. The more you give speeches, the more confidence you will have and you will realise that you are an effective speaker - Realise that your audience does not expect perfection ?" your teachers and your peers know that you do not give public speeches for a living and making mistakes is only a part of life, everyone makes them. The important thing is to learn from them. - Remember your breathing ?" breath deeply to relax yourself, clench your fists and then relax them before you get up to give the speech as this helps to relax you as well. - Practice, Practice, Practice ?" in front of friends, family, the mirror, even family pets! - During rehearsal ?" time the speech, rehearse the speech from start to finish rather than in parts, rehearse at least 3 or 4 times in a row to get a feeling of familiarity with the speech (practice as often as you can)
Activity
Choose a page from your favourite novel. Photocopy this page if possible and bring it to class. Practice reading this page to a small group (3-4 people), then take it home and practice reading it there, as often as you can. Bring it to class the next day and read it to the same group of people. Ask them to comment on whether it seemed you were more confident delivering the speech on the second day. How had you improved?
10.Deliver the Speech
Your body and voice are a great part of the message that the audience will receive. Use these tools to complement your verbal messages.
Voice
Your voice is your major tool in delivering your message. There are five areas we can consider in an attempt to improve our presentations.
Volume
This refers to the loudness or softness of your voice. An obvious problem here is that you might be talking too softly and all your audience members cannot hear you. You must be aware of the size of the room you are in so that you can project your voice loudly enough so everyone can hear what you are saying. On the other hand, if you talk too loudly then you might seem disturbing to the audience (they don?Tt want to be yelled at!). You should use the volume of your voice to emphasise certain words that are important in your speech (as well as the pitch).
Rate
Rate refers to the speed at which you speak. Sometimes people who are nervous when they give presentations can race and speak too quickly. If you do this, you deprive your listeners the opportunity to digest what you are saying (let it sink in and have an impact). You need to pace yourself. By doing this, you also seem relaxed and more approachable.
Pitch
Pitch refers to the relative highness or lowness of your voice. Changes in pitch often signal changes in meaning. The most obvious is the difference between a statement (where the pitch falls) and a question (where the pitch rises).
Articulation and Pronunciation
Articulation refers to movements of the speech organs as they modify and interrupt the air stream you send from the lungs. Different movements (for example, of the tongue, lips, teeth) produce different sounds. Pronunciation refers to the production of syllables or words according to some accepted standard, such as that of the dictionary. We can identify some common problems associated with faulty articulation and pronunciation;
- Articulation : errors of omission Incorrect Correct gov-a-ment gov-ern-ment hi-stry hi-sto-ry wanna want to comp-ny comp-a-ny - Articulation : errors of substitution Incorrect Correct wader waiter dese these bedder better ax ask ekcetera etcetera - Articulation : errors of ad***ion Incorrect Correct acrost across athalete athlete idear idea lore law - Pronunciation : errors of accent Where people emphasise the wrong part of a word e.g. insurance ?" some people incorrectly emphasise the ?~I?T rather than the ?~u?T - Pronunciation : errors of adding sounds For some words, some people add sounds that are not part of the acceptable pronunciation. Some people pronounce letters that are a part of the word but which should remain silent. e.g. Incorrect ?" evening correct ?" evning
Body Action
Your body is an important tool in your speech. You speak with your body as well as your mouth. The total effect of your speech depends not only on what you say but also on how you present it. The five aspects of body action especially important in public speaking are eye contact, expression, posture, gestures and movement.
Eye Contact
The major problem here is when the speaker does not make eye contact with the audience. Some make the mistake of reading straight from their palm cards and failing to remember that the presentation is about more than the content. Speakers who do not maintain eye contact appear distant, unconcerned and less trustworthy than speakers who look directly at their audience. Without eye contact you will not be able to secure the all-important audience feedback. Communicate with members on all sides of the room as well, rather than only looking at the teacher or one or two people.
Facial Expressions
If you look like you are relaxed and enjoying giving the presentation then your audience will respond more positively to you. If you look nervous (tightened lips, shifty eyes, overacting) then the audience will be skeptical about what you are saying.
Posture
When delivering your speech stand straight but not stiff. Try to communicate a command of the situation but not any nervousness you feel. Avoid putting your hands in your pockets, leaning on the desk or the board or crossing your arms. When people cross their arms, they do so as a defensive gesture. It is another way of saying ?~go away, I don?Tt want to let you in and I am really uncomfortable and nervous?T. An audience will certainly not respond well to this!
Gestures
Gestures help you illustrate your verbal messages. To be effective, body action should be spontaneous and natural. Gestures may include motioning towards the audience or using your hands to emphasise important points (this does not mean you wave your arms around like a madman! It needs to seem natural.)
Movement
Speakers who move around too little may seem fearful or distant (as thought they are scared to move from that spot). Too much movement may lead the audience to concentrate on the movement itself, wondering where you will end up next. Use movement to emphasise transitions and to introduce important assertions. For example, when making an important transition you might step forward towards the audience.
Using Notes
Effective delivery depends on the smooth use of notes during the speech. The following are some tips to using palm cards effectively;
- palm cards are called palm cards because they should be small enough to fit in the palm of your hand. Do not use strips of paper that look like pom poms! Waving strips of paper around is very distracting and takes the focus away from what you are talking about. - Practice using your cards at home ?" if you know your content and what you have on your cards, you will be able to move from one card to another quickly without drawing attention to the fact you are using the cue cards. - Do not write out the whole speech on the cards ?" You should only have key points in point form on the cards, not full sentences. If you do write out the whole speech, word for word, and get nervous while presenting then you are likely to spend the whole time reading off the palm cards (looking at them the whole time) and you will not use eye contact. - Slip the cards behind one another as you are finished with them ?" do not drop them on the floor or onto the desk as this can be distracting and unprofessional.
(2b cont''ed)
Phen này ông quyết 'i buôn c'i Trên ... mạng bao nhiêu 'ứa giã trầu. (Xin l-i cụ Tú)

Public speaking​

(cont''ed)
Activity
Imagine the paragraph below had to be summarised into point form and that these brief points or key terms were to be written on a palm card. Write the points or key terms you would put on the palm card.
Australia is a fascinating country. There are so many things to do and places to see. Activities you can do in Australia include absailing, canoeing, swimming, bungee jumping and air ballooning. There are many famous monuments and landmarks you can also visit including the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Crown Casino in Melbourne and the Gold Coast in Queensland. You are guaranteed to have an enjoyable holiday if you decide to go to Australia. Make sure to take a camera with you because you will need it to capture the many amazing things you will see. There are so many creatures that are unique to Australia including echidnas, kangaroos and ****atoos.
Thinking Critically About Public Speaking Preparation and Evaluation
Part of the function in learning public speaking is leaning to evaluate the finished, delivered speech. As a beginning guide to speech evaluation, focus on the following questions, which come from the topics we have discussed in this unit of work. Use these questions to check your own speech as well as a guide to evaluating the speeches of others.
The Subject and Purpose
1. Is the subject worthwhile? Relevant? Interesting to the audience and to the speaker? 2. What is the speechõ?Ts general purpose? (to inform, persuade) 3. Is the topic narrow enough to be covered in some depth? 4. Is the specific purpose clear to the audience?
The Audience
1. Has the speaker considered the age, gender, cultural factors, occupation, income, status and religion of the audience members? How does the speech deal with these factors? 2. Has the speaker considered and adapted to the willingness, favourableness and knowledge of the audience?
Research
1. Is the speech adequately researched? Are source reliable and up to date? 2. Does the speaker seem to thoroughly understand the subject?
The Thesis and Major Propositions
1. Is the speechõ?Ts thesis clear and limited to one main idea? 2. Are the speechõ?Ts main propositions clearly related to the thesis? 3. Are there an appropriate number of propositions in the speech (not too many, not too few)?
Supporting Materials
1. Is each major proposition adequately and appropriately supported? 2. Do the supporting materials actually support the arguments they are being used to prove or support?
Organisation
1. How is the body of the speech organised? What is the organisation pattern? 2. Is the organisation pattern appropriate to the speech topic? To the audience? Does it help the audience understand the speech?
Wording
1. Does the language used help the audience understand clearly and immediately what the speaker is saying? Are words simple, rather than complex, concrete rather than abstract? 2. Are the sentences short, direct, active, positive and varied?
The Conclusion, Introduction and Transitions
1. Does the conclusion adequately and effectively summarize the speech? 2. Does the introduction gain the audiences attention (how?) and provide a clear orientation to the speech? 3. Are there adequate transitions between the parts of the speech? Do the transitions help the audience better understand the speechõ?Ts development?
Delivery
1. Does the speaker maintain eye contact with the audience? 2. Are the volume and rate appropriate to the audience, occasion and topic? 3. Are the voice and body actions appropriate to the speaker, subject, and audience? (comment on posture, gestures, facial expressions and movement)
Assessment Task
1. You will write a speech of your own on any topic you choose. It is to be a persuasive speech. It is to go for between 3 and 4 minutes. You are to plan the speech in detail in your exercise books. When delivering the speech, you are to take into consideration all of the issues we have discussed about public speaking in an attempt to earn the best grade you can. Your speech will be graded by the teacher and will contribute to the listening and speaking folio grade on your end of semester report.
2. You will be asked to write an evaluation of another person when they deliver their speech. You will be told on the day who the person is you will be evaluating. You are to follow the guidelines we discussed for evaluating public speaking. You will submit this evaluation to the teacher and this will be graded. The grade you receive will also contribute to your listening and speaking folio grade as you will need to use your listening skills in order to complete this activity.
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The following are units of work that I have developed on my own for teaching different skills of public speaking.
Impromptu Speeches
An impromptu speech is a speech that you are asked to deliver after only having a few minutes to be aware of the topic and prepare what you are going to say.
The biggest hurdle to overcome when delivering a speech of this kind id to find links between the topic, what you know about the topic and what the audience knows about the topic.
If you can link the topic to something you are interested in or know a lot about then you will probably have no difficulty in thinking of something to say about the topic.
For example, if you were given the topic of õ?~schoolõ?T then you would probably find it easy to talk about it since you are a teenager and go to school every day and it is a part of your life. On the other hand, if you were given the topic of õ?~tax and small businessesõ?T then you would have much more trouble!
Generally, you should have a palm card prepared in case of emergencies. The card should have the following points listed on it:
ù,ã me
ù,ã my friends
ù,ã my family
ù,ã my country
ù,ã internationally
ù,ã the media
If you get absolutely stuck when discussing a topic, refer to this card to think of ideas to inspire you as most topics can be related to all of these different people or places.
Using Palm Cards
The purpose of palm cards : Palm cards are an aide to help prompt you during your speech.
Palm cards should : fit in the palm of your hand, be small and rectangular (or square, depending on the shape of your palm), be invisible during your speech õ?" people should not even know you are using them, be numbered, should be placed behind one another after they have been used õ?" not dropped on the floor or dropped on the desk. Never draw attention to your palm cards õ?" you want your audience focusing on you and your message, not on what you are doing with your palm cards
Palm cards should not : have the whole speech written on it õ?" only have notes to prompt you or else you will be tempted to read straight off them, especially if you get nervous!, look like pom poms, be connected õ?" if you staple them then it is obvious when you turn from one to the next
Activity
Trace your hand on a sheet of paper. Next, draw a rectangle/square in the palm of your hand. This is the size your palm cards should be from now on.
Using Palm Cards õ?" Part 2
Last week we discussed how to determine the relative size of your palm card and we did an activity that allowed us to practice using these palm cards properly.
Firstly there are some things I would like to clarify:
- People seemed concerned that it was hard to hold and hard to turn so many palm cards. I think that people were forgetting that speakers should not be having to use a mountain of palm cards. Generally, the fewer palm cards you have the better õ?" anywhere between 2 and 4 is generally acceptable, any more than 5 and you are making things very difficult for yourself. Remember, palm cards should not have your whole speech on them õ?" they should only have a collection of points to help you remember what you are going to say!
- People were concerned that the paper we used was hard to hold õ?" ideally your palm cards would not be made of simple paper. Ideally, they would be made of thin cardboard which is firmer, doesnõ?Tt bend and are easier to hold. It is also easier to turn thin cardboard palm cards than paper ones.
- People seemed concerned that after cutting out their palm cards they seemed to be too big. You can trim down your palm cards after doing that exercise õ?" it is not an exact science, it is only a way to determine the relative size of your palm cards. It is also a matter of getting used to the size of the palm card if you have been using giant ones or õ?~pom pomsõ?T in the past!
Todayõ?Ts activity will be similar to last weeks activity. I would like you to prepare 4 palm cards. On each of those palm cards you will write one of these phrases:
ù,ã On the weekend I õ?Ư.
ù,ã What I like about the world is õ?Ư
ù,ã The person I most admire is õ?Ư
ù,ã If I could change one thing it would be õ?Ư
After writing these phrases on the cards (and numbering the cards in the top right hand corner!), place them face down on the desk and shuffle them around. Then place them back in a pile. Find a partner for the next part of the activity (who will have done the same thing). Choose who will go first. At this point both of you should still have your palm cards in an upside down pile on the desk. The person who will go first will look at the first card and then look up and start talking about the topic. When they run out of ideas, they look at the next card and then look up and start talking again on the new topic. When the first person has finished their set of cards, the second person picks up their set and starts. Make sure you think about turning your cards properly during the exercise. If you and your partner finish early, make up a few ad***ional palm cards with the following phrases on them and repeat the activity.
ù,ã What bothers me is when õ?Ư
ù,ã My favourite holiday was when õ?Ư
ù,ã The funniest thing I remember was õ?Ư
ù,ã The hardest thing I have ever had to do õ?Ư
Verbal Apsects of Public Speaking
The following are important considerations when delivering a speech in public:
TONE
The tone of your voice. The way in which something is said. E.g. in a serious tone, a sarcastic tone, a sad tone, a critical tone. Varying the õ?~colourõ?T in your voice will help you to emphasise things and will also keep the audience interested in what you are saying. If you talk in a monotone õ?" all in one tone õ?" then you will put your audience to sleep! Think of the word õ?~reallyõ?T. How many different tones of voice can you say this word in to give it different meanings?
TUNE
Tune relates to the pitch of your voice. Using high and low õ?~notesõ?T to add variation to the way in which you say things to keep your audience hooked.
PAUSE
Using pauses effectively in your speech gives the audience time to think about what you have just said. If you do not use pauses and just keep going like a freight train and give them one point after another, they will not be able to think of each individual point. It will be too much in too short a period of time. You want your audience to walk away thinking about what you have just said, not wondering what you said at all because you overloaded them!
PACE
Pace refers to how quickly or how slowly you give your speech. Usually you slow down in your speech when you are saying something really important to give it time to sink in for the audience. If you talk too quickly you can lose your audience as well because they canõ?Tt keep up with what you are saying and they lose the meaning of the speech. A successful speech is a conversational one.
VOLUME
Speaking loudly enough so everyone in the room can hear you. You can vary your volume based on what you are talking about. For example, if I were talking about a sad event where someone had died and it was very upsetting I might speak more quietly but if I were talking about a terrorist event and I wanted people to get enthusiastic about doing something or taking some action, I might speak more loudly.
Phen này ông quyỏt 'i buôn cỏằ'i Trên ... mỏĂng bao nhiêu 'ỏằâa giÊ trỏĐu. (Xin lỏằ-i cỏằƠ Tú)

Writing basics ​

"It was a dark and stormy night"...
Good writing takes
enormous concentration.
Snoopy/C. Schulz
1988 American

Writing essays, term papers, lab reports, etc.
no matter the topic, is a process:
Establish, narrow, and define your topic
State your thesis or theme in a sentence or two at most
Define your audience
Is it your instructor who grades you or a teaching assistant?
Your classmates who will critique your work?
A conference of professionals for review?
Keep your audience in mind as you write
Plan ahead
Set a time line and allow for unexpected developments and planned revision
Gather resources
People: instructor, teaching assistant, research librarian, tutor, subject matter experts, professionals
References: text book, reference works, web sites, journals, diaries, professional reports
Research:
read, interview, experiment, gather data, etc. and take notes completely as possible and document sources. Either use index cards or a system in word processing...
Organize your notes with a prewriting exercise:
focused freewriting, brainstorming, mapping, and/or outlining
Write your first (rough) draft
Determine how you will develop your argument: Use good logic in a reasoned argument to develop the theme and/or support the thesis. Will you compare or define? Will you criticize or describe? See the definitions of writing terms in our Guides.
Your first paragraph
Introduce the topic!
Inform the reader of your point of view!
Entice the reader to continue with the rest of the paper!
Focus on three main points to develop
The first paragraph is often the most difficult to write. If you have trouble, just get it down with the intention of re-writing it later, even after you have finished with the rest. But remember this first entry draws your audience into your topic, your perspective, and its importance to continue with the rest. So:
Development
Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph
transition sentences, clauses, or words at the beginning of paragraph connect one idea to the next
(See the page on transitional words and phrases)
topic sentences in each paragraph, also near the beginning,
define their place in the overall scheme
avoid one and two sentence paragraphs
which may reflect lack of development of your point
Keep your voice active
"The Academic Committee decided..." not "It was decided by..."
Avoid the verb "to be" for clear, dynamic, and effective presentation
(Avoid the verb "to be" and your presentation will be effective, clear, and dynamic)
Avoiding "to be" will also avoid the passive voice
Use quotations *****pport your interpretations
Properly introduce, explain, and cite each quote
Block (indented) quotes should be used sparingly;
they can break up the flow of your argument
Continually prove your point of view throughout the essay
Don''t drift or leave its primary focus of the essay
Don''t lapse in*****mmary in the development--wait until its time, at the conclusion
Conclusion
Read your first paragraph and the development
Summarize, then conclude, your argument
Refer back (once again) to the first paragraph(s) as well as the development
do the last paragraphs briefly restate the main ideas?
reflect the succession and importance of the arguments
logically conclude their development?
E***/rewrite the first paragraph
to better set your development and conclusion
Take a day or two off!
Re-read your paper
with a fresh mind and a sharp pencil.
Re-read aloud,
as if you want to communicate with a trusted friend or family member. The person/people can be real or imaginary. You will be surprised what you find to change!
Having someone else read your paper
For proofing e***ing errors that you missed
For the big question: did you accomplish your purpose for your intended audience?
E***, correct, and re-write as necessary
Turn in the paper
Celebrate a job well done, with the confidence that you have done your best.
This last is very important.

Phen này ông quyết đi buôn cối Trên ... mạng bao nhiêu đứa giã trầu. (Xin lỗi cụ Tú)

WAYS TO LEARN NEW WORDS
​

An important aspect of the general characteristics of language is openness, which concrens the fact that all languages continually get new morphemes. The different mechanisms that languages have to achieve this is the concern of this and the following unit.
Because a morpheme is a relationship of form and meaning, there at least three senses in which a morhpheme may be said to be new. The new morpheme may have:
new meaning in new form
Invention
Borrowing
new meaning in old form
Derivation
Zero-derivation
Compounding
Extension
Narrowing
Bifurcation
Backformation
old meaning in new form
Clipping
Acronyming
Blending
Wrong cutting

Principle of limited novelty
New meanings are preferred in old forms, and new forms are preferred in old meanings.
As a result of this principle rarely are new morphemes entirely new, and this partial familiarity helps to make them more effective and therefore more acceptable than they would be otherwise.
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Clipping
Clipping is shortening or clipping the spoken form of a word.
Note that this definition excludes what are tra***ionally called abbreviations, which is shortening the written form of words, as in Mr. for Mister, Eng. for English. Abbreviations typically end in periods, and often have spellings which would be unsuitable for English words. IN fact, they are pronounced in full form when read alloud.
Clippings do have English-like spellings and pronounceability. Examples
pub, fan, pet, lab, intro, econ, flu, fax, condo, pram
The ''clipping'' seems often to start from the graphic form, since the surviving fragment is usually initial and need not constitute either prosodically or semantically the salient part of the original:
ad/advert from advertisement
cosec from cosecant
demo from demonstration
exam from examination
gents from gentlemen''s lavatory
lab from laboratory
lib from liberation
memo from memorandum
mike from microphone
photo from photograph
prof from professor
stereo from stereophonic
telly (BrE) from television
Less commonly, the clipped form has resulted from discarding the initial part of a word, as in:
phone from telephone
plane from airplane, aeroplane
Occasionally, syllables have been discarded at both ends of a word, as in
flu from influenza
fridge from refrigerator
pram from perambulator
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Acronyming
Acronyming is a sort of clipping in which a phrase is replaced by a word based upon the first letters of its words. There are two types:
Word acronyms are pronounced as ordinary words, not as spellings:
scuba -> self-contained underwater apparatus
RAM -> Random Access Memory
Unicef -> United Nations International Children''s Emergency Fund''
MASH -> mobile army surginal hospital
NASA -> National Aeronautics and Space Administration
laser -> light amplification by sitmulated emission of radiation
NATO -> North Atlantic Treaty Organization
radar -> radio detecting and ranging
UNESCO -> the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
WASP -> White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
ROM -> Read Only Memory
Spelling acronyms or initialisms are read and pronounced as spellings, as a sequence of letters, so their acronymic origin tends to be more obvious:
PR -> public relations
TLC -> tender loving care
ID -> identification
c/o -> (in) care of (on envelopes)
C.O.D. -> cash on delivery
DIY -> do-it-yourself (self-repairs, etc)
EU -> European Union
ESP -> extra-sensory perception
FBI -> Federal Bureau of Investigation
i.e. -> id est (Latin: ''that is'')
LA -> Los Angeles
MIT -> Massachusetts Institute of Technology
PC -> personal computer
UFO -> unidentified flying object
UN -> the United Nations
VIP -> very important person
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Blending
Blending is replacing two words of a phrase with parts of both, ordinarily the first part and the last part of the other
motel -> motor + hotel
chunnel -> channel + tunnel
glassphalt -> glass + asphalt
gobot -> go + robot
sitcom -> situation + comedy
edutainment -> education + entertainment

Blending is a very productive process, especially in commercial coinages, which suggests that it is popular. Where many types of neologism are criticized adversely (e.g. as ''unnecessary jargon''), blends seem rather to be enjoyed. Perhaps in consequence, many of them are short-lived. E.g.: swimsation of a swimsuit that will cause a sensation; lubritection of a new lubricant that will provide engine protection.
Others again achieve a brief surge of productivity in response to an outstanding event. In the years following the Washington Watergate scandals, the name, Watergate became a model for such blends, being the thematic element in items like, Muldergate, Billiegate, cattlegate.
breathalyser -> breath + analyser
electrocute -> electro + execute
Eurovision -> European + television
heliport -> helicopter + airport
newscast -> news + broadcast
paratroops -> parachute + troops
smog -> smoke + fog
stagflation -> stagnation + inflation
telecast -> television + broadcast
travelogue -> travel + catalogue
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Wrong cutting
Wrong cutting is a rare source of new word forms. Foreign words may be wrongly identified and successively (wrongly) adopted:
apron from napron (fr.) (a napron -> an apron)
umpire from nomper (fr.)
nickname from ekename
lariat from ''la reata''
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Invention
Inventing a word, more or less from scratch
geek zip
snob dork
barf nerd
googol (1929) goof
kleenex
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Borrowing
Borrowing is taking word from another language. The borrowed words are called loanwords.
disco
gung-ho -> ''spirit, enthusiasm''
passé -> ''out of style, old fashioned''
mutton, pork, beef, soufflé, restaurant (French)
Nativization is changing the pronunciation of borrowed words so they conform to the pronunciation rules of the borrowing language.
Etimology is the origin, or the study of the origin of words.
(Cont''ed)
Phen này ông quyết đi buôn cối Trên ... mạng bao nhiêu đứa giã trầu. (Xin lỗi cụ Tú)

WAYS TO ... (Cont''d)
Zero-derivation (Conversion)
Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the ad***ion of an affix. It is similar to processes of suffixation, but here the base is not altered in any way.
Direction of conversion
Because there is no ad***ion of a suffix it is difficult to decide which item should be treated as the base and which as the derived form.
Often the semantic dependence of one item upon another is enough to argue its derivational dependence. For example, the verb net can be paraphrased in terms of the noun as ''put into a net'', but no paraphrase could be constructed for the noun (''an instrument for netting''?)
1. Conversion to noun
a. Deverbal
a) State. (from verbs used statively to count or noncount nouns): desire, dismay, doubt, love. smell, taste. want
b) Event/activity. (from verbs used dynamically): fall, hit, laugh, release, search, swim, shut-down, blow-out (of a tyre)
c) ''Object of V'': answer, bet, catch, find, hand-out.
d) ''Subject of V'': bore, cheat, coach, show-off, stand-in
e) ''Instrument of V'': cover, paper, wrap.
f) ''Manner of V-ing''. walk, throw.
g) ''Place of V'': divide, retreat, rise, turn, lay-by, drive-in
b. De-adjectival
As a football player, he''s a natural. [=a naturally skilled player]
They''re running in the final. [= the final race]
Also daily [= ''daily newspaper''], weekly, monthly, annual perennial, comic [= ''comic actor''], regulars [= ''regular customers''], roast [= ''roast beef''].
2. Conversion to verb
a. Denominal
(a) ''To put in/on N'': bottle [= ''to put into a bottle''], carpet, corner, catalogue, floor, garage, position, shelve (books)
(b) ''To give N, to provide with N'': butter (bread), coat [= ''to give a coat (of paint, etc) to''], commission, grease, mask
(c) ''To deprive of N'': core [= ''remove the core from''], gut, peel, skin.
(d) ''To . . . with N'': brake [= ''to stop by means of a brake''], elbow, hand, finger, glue.
(e) ''To be/act as N with'': father, nurse, pilot, referee.
(f) ''To make/change into N'': cash [= ''to change into cash''], cripple, group
(g) ''To send/go by N'': mail [= ''to send by mail''], ship, telegraph, bicycle [= ''to go by bicycle''], boat, canoe, motor.
b. De-adjectival
(a) (transitive verbs) ''to make adj.'' or ''to make more adj.'': calm [= ''to make calm''], dirty, dry, humble, lower, soundproof.
(b) (intransitive verbs) ''to become adj.'': dry [= ''to become dry''], empty, narrow, yellow.
3. Minor categories of conversion
1. Conversion to nouns
a) From closed-class words
His argument contains too many ifs and buts.
This book is a must for the student of aerodynamics.
It tells you about the how and the why of flight.
b) From affixes; very occasionally, an affix may be converted into a noun:
Patriotism, nationalism, and any other isms you''d like to name.
c) From phrases:
Whenever I gamble, my horse is one of the also-rans [= ''one of the horses which did not win but merely, also ran'']
Also ''the high-ups'' ''he is a has-been'', ''a free-for-al'', ''some down-and-outs''
2. Conversion to verbs: from closed-class and non-lexical items, chiefly informal :
They downed tools in protest.
She will off and do her own thing.
If you uh-uh again, I won''t go on with my story.
3. Conversion to adjectives: from phrases (such as that in ''The plane is up in the air''):
an up-in-the-air feeling ~ I feel very up in the air. [with reference to cheerful spirits]
an upper-class manner ~ His manner is very upper-class.
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Compounding
A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.
Classification of compounds
Noun compounds
1. Type ''subject and verb''
a) SUNRISE: subject + deverbal noun (''The sun rises''). This is a very productive type. For example: bee-sting, frostbite, nightfall, headache, rainfall, daybreak, heartbeat, earthquake, landslide, toothache.
b) RATTLESNAKE: verb + subject (''The snake rattles''). Weakly productive: crybaby, driftwood, drip, coffee, flashlight, glowworm, hangman, playboy, popcorn, turntable, watchdog.
c) CLEANING WOMAN: verbal noun in -ing + subject. Very productive: investigating committee, working party, flying saucer, working man, firing squad, flying machine, washing machine.
2. Type ''verb and object''
a) BLOOD TEST: object + deverbal noun (''X tests blood''). Moderately productive type: compunds with self, birth-control, book review crime report, dress-design, haircut, handshake, meat delivery, office management, suicide attempt, self-control, self-destruction, tax cut, word-formation.
b) FAULT-FINDING: object + verbal noun in -ing (''X finds fault(s)''). Very productive: air-con***ioning, book-keeping, book-reviewing, brainwashing, dressmaking, housekeeping, letter-writing, sightseeing, story-telling, town-planning.
c) TAX-PAYER: object + agential noun in -er (''X pays tax(es)''). Very productive: lawn-mower, penholder, record-player, cigar smoker, stockholder.
d) PUNCH CARD: verb + object (''X punches the card''). For example: call-girl, punchball, scarecrow, treadmill, computer-designer, hair-splitter, radio-operator, window-cleaner, crime reporter, language teacher, songwriter.
3. Type ''verb and adverbial''
a) SWIMMING POOL: verbal noun in -ing + adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase; (''X swims in the pool''). Very productive type: diving board, drinking cup, freezing point, frying pan, hiding-place, living-room, typing paper, waiting room, writing desk, adding machine, baking powder, carving knife, sewing machine, walking stick, washing machine.
b) DAYDREAMING: adverbial + verbal noun in -ing (''X dreams during the day''). Moderately productive type: churchgoing, horse riding, tight-rope walking, sun-bathing, sleep walking, fly-fishing, handwriting.
c) BABY SITTER: adverbial + agential noun in -er (''X sits with the baby''). Moderately productive: backswimmer, city-dweller, factory-worker, gate-crasher (''uninvited guest''), housebreaker, playgoer, tight-rope walker, sun-bather, theatre-goer, daydreamer.
d) HOMEWORK: adverbial + deverbal noun (''X works at home''). Moderately productive: boat-ride, field-work, table talk, moon walk, daydream, night flight, gunfight, smallpox vaccination, tax-exemption, telephone call.
e) SEARCHLIGHT. verb + adverbial (''X searches with a light''). For example: dance hall, springboard, workbench, grindstone, plaything, cookbook, restroom, swimsuit, washroom.
4. ''Verbless'' compounds
1. Type ''subject and object''
a) WINDMILL: noun1 + noun2 (''noun1 [powers/operates] noun2:the wind powers the mill''). For example: air-brake, air rifle, cable car, coal fire, motorcycle, steam engine, gas cooker, hydrogen bomb.
b) TOY FACTORY: noun1 + noun2 (''noun2 produces/yields noun1 ''the factory produces toys''). For example: honey-bee, oil well, power plant, silkworm, tear gas, textile mill, water pistol, gold mine.
c) BLOODSTAIN: noun1 + noun2 (''noun1 produces/yields noun2: blood produces stains''). For example: cane sugar, eiderdown, food poisoning, gaslight, hay fever, sawdust, tortoise-shell, whalebone.
d) DOORKNOB: noun1 + noun2 (''noun1 [has] noun2: the door has a knob''). Very productive. Noun1 is inanimate. With animate we use a noncompound genitive phrase: compare the ''table ,leg with ''the boy''s leg: arrowhead, bedpost, bottleneck, cartwheel, piano keys, shirt-sleeves, table leg, telephone, receiver, television screen, window-pane.
e) SECURITY OFFICER: noun1 + noun2 (''noun2 controls/works in connection with noun1: The officer looks after security''). Very productive: chairperson, motorman, deckhand, police-officer, fireman, gasman, postman, workman, businessman, draughtsman.
2. Type ''subject and complement''
a) GIRLFRIEND: noun1 + noun2 (''noun2 [is] noun1: ''the friend is a girl''). Noun1 often refers to a subset of the class denoted by noun2. For example: blinker light, drummer boy, feeder bus, killer shark, manservant, oak tree, pine tree, tape-measure.
b) DARKROOM: adjective + noun (''noun [is] adjective'': the room is dark''). For example: blackboard, blackbird, blueprint, double-talk, dry dock, greyhound, grey matter, handyman, highchair, hothouse, longboat, madman.
c) FROGMAN: noun1 + noun2 (''noun2, is like noun1: the man is like a frog''). Very productive: butter-bean, catfish, dragonfly, goldfish, kettledrum, sandwich man, tissue paper.
d) SNOW FLAKE: noun1 + noun2 (''noun2 [is of, consists of] noun1: a flake of snow''). For example: breadcrumb, sand dune, chocolate bar, raindrop, soap flake.
e) ASHTRAY: noun1 + noun2 (noun1, [is for] noun2: the tray is for ash''). Highly productive: birdcage, fish-pond, tearoom, breakfast time, coffee time, cough drops, doghouse, facecloth, fire engine, flowerbed, safety belt.
Adjective compounds
1. Type ''verb and object''
MAN-EATING: object + -ing participle (''X eats men'' faultfinding). This is a very productive type. For example: breathtaking, record-breaking, mouth-watering, fact-finding, self-defeating, heart-breaking, self-justifying, life-giving.
2. Type ''verb and adverbial
a) OCEAN-GOING: adverbial + -ing participle (''X goes across oceans''). For example: fist-fighting, law-abiding, lip-sucking.
b) HEARTFELT: adverbial + -ed participle (''X feels it in the heart''). Custom-built, handmade, home-brewed, home-made, suntanned, typewritten, moonstruck, town-bred, language(-)impaired.
c) HARD-WORKING: adverb/adjective + -ing participle (''X works hard'', ''good-looking: X looks good''). For example: easy-going, everlasting, far-reaching, good-looking, sweet-smelling.
d) QUICK-FROZEN: adjective/adverb + -ed participle (''X was frozen quickly''). For example: dry-cleaned, long-awaited, new-laid, widespread, far-fetched, fresh-baked, well-meant.
3. Type ''verbless''
a) FOOTSORE: noun-based adverbial of respect + adjective (''sore in respect to (one''s) feet''). Airsick, dustproof, homesick, watertight, air-tight, duty-free, oven-ready, camera-ready, fireproof, tax-free, carsick, foolproof.
b) GRASS-GREEN: noun (denoting basis of comparison) + adjective (''as green as grass'') Age-old, ash-blonde, bottle-green, brick red, jet black, midnight blue, rock-hard, sea-green.
c) GREY-GREEN: adjective + adjective in a coordinating relation (''The colour is basically green but with a greyish tint''). Anglo-Polish, au***ory-visual, deaf-mute, Franco-German, phonetic-syntactic, psychosomatic, Russo-Chinese, sensori-neural, Sino-Italian, socio-economic, Swedish-Brazilian, tragi-comic.
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Extension and Narrowing
Extension is the widening or extending of the meaning of a word:
red -> ''a person with socialist political/economic beliefs''
silverware -> ''table utensils: knives, forks, etc.''
holiday -> ''customary day of no work'', or in BrE ''vacation''
xerox, kleenex, biro, band-aid
Metaphor is the main device by which extension takes place. In fact, we talk about "metaphorical extensions" of well-known senses of words.
Idioms are a well known source of metaphorical extensions: birds of a feather, to kick the bucket.
Narrowing is the opposite: the meaning of a word is reduced, rather than extended.
band -> ''a group of persons, especially one which performs music''
building -> ''something built to enclose and cover a large space''
doctor -> ''one holding a doctorate degree (PhD) in medicine or other field''
Words may be extended or narrowed to yield either a more positive or negative meaning, and we then find with cases of
Elevation: brave (which earlier meant ''bright, gaudy''), prize (which earlier meant ''price''), great (which used to mean ''large, important'').
Pejoration: mean (used to mean ''malicious, inferior''), idiot (which used to mean just ''ignorant''), criticize, which now means ''give a negative critique''
Lateral shift: harvest (autumn -> bringing in the crops); trade (track -> path -> commerce), bead (which used to mean ''prayer'').
Euphemism is the extension of ordinary words and phrases to express unpleasnt or embarrassing ideas: nathroom, intercourse, undertaker, dentures, pass away, pre-owned.
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Bifurcation
A word or morpheme develops two forms and its meaning is eventually divided between the two forms
Hanged and hung, flied (in baseball: ''hit a fly ball'') and flew
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Back-formation
Pairs of words like advise ~ advisor, burgle ~ burglar, inspect ~ inspector, e*** ~ e***or, suggest an identical relationship between the members which from the synchronic viewpoint of the ordinary language user is perfectly correct. But as a matter of historical fact, while advisor and inspector were indeed formed from advise and inspect by suffixation, we have derived burgle and e*** from burglar and e***or, analysing these on the analogy of other agential nouns. This is the process known as ''backformation'', and in ad***ion to well-established items, whether from long ago (like laze from lazy) or more recently (like televize from television), new formations of this kind continue to be made.
The process is particularly fruitful in creating denominal verbs. It should be noted that new formations tend to be used with some hesitation, especially in respect of the full range of verbal inflexions. For example, self-destruct is widely used, but we would prefer to use destroy when ordinary verb inflections must be used:
?''The organization self-destructed in 1985''.
So also we had baby-sitter before the verb baby-sit, and the base form (''Will you baby-sit for me?'') before inflected forms (''She baby-sat for them''). Other back-formations continue to display their lack of established acceptability.
*(They) sight-saw, *(She) housekept
A particularly productive type of back-formation relates to the noun compounds in -ing and -er. For example, the verbs: bottle-feed, fire-watch, sleep-walk, brain-wash, house-hunt, spring-clean, chain-smoke, house-keep, window-shop.
Phen này ông quyết đi buôn cối Trên ... mạng bao nhiêu đứa giã trầu. (Xin lỗi cụ Tú)

TEST TAKING STRATEGIES​

PREPARING FOR TESTS BEFORE YOUR FINAL REVIEW
1. Early in the course find out:
The type of exams (e.g., essays vs. multiple choice).
The data of the exams.
The scope of the exams (e.g., Are you responsible for dates? Formulas? Derivations?).
Where the exam material comes from (i.e., how much from each book and how much from the lectures).
2. Pay special attention to:
Things the professor says will be on the test.
Material that is not in the book.
Terms, diagrams, etc., that were put on the board.
3. Schedule intermediate reviews:
Recite from your lecture notes.
Take notes on text and recite from these notes.
This prevents a marathon review.
This strengthens the memory trace.
4. Use old tests as study aids:
EXAMINE OLD MIDTERMS AND FINAL EXAMS FROM PREVIOUS SEMESTERS
They may be on file at the library or at the department office.
Find someone who has taken the course and ask him/her about prof''s style.
Analyze the prof''s testing style (i.e., does s/he like creativity or memorization, main points or details).
Use them as practice test questions.
USE YOUR EARLIER MIDTERMS
ANANLYZE YOUR MISTAKES.
Did you misread the question?
Did you fail to get something important into your notes?
NOTE THE GRADER''S COMMENTS.
ANALYZE THE PROF''S TESTING STYLE.

FINAL REVIEW BEFORE AN EXAM
1. Review
Take notes on test material if you haven''t already. (Consider flash cards.) Use your underlining as a guide and be very selective.
Recite from your lecture notes and text notes.
Make summary sheets of the most important material and any important unlearned material (or separate cards into piles of cards "to learn" and "learned").
Recite from your summary sheets (or cards "to learn").
Make "summary of summary" sheets of any material still unlearned (or continue to separate flash cards).
Recite from these.
Make "summary of summary of summary" sheets (or separate flash cards further).
2. Memorize lists.
To memorize lists on your summary sheets, use mnemonic acronyms e.g. VISTA - Volunteers in Service to America), and mnemonic sentences (Every Good Boy Deserves Favor = E G B D F -- the lines on the Treble Staff in music).
(Hormones of the anterior pituitary gland are growth hormone, ACTH, thyroid stimulating hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, leuteinizing hormone, prolactin. (G A T F L P OR G A T F U P) ACRONYM = FAT PUG (sentence = People always forget to grow up.)
3. Perhaps meet with other students.
Find one, two or three well-prepared students.
Have an organized agenda to compare perceptions of the main points and possible essay questions.
Don''t get bogged down on minor points.
Don''t take someone else''s word on a point you''re not sure about--look it up later.
4. Pay special attention to:
Material from the early part of the course.
Confusing material.
Concepts and principles.
5. Anticipate test questions for essay tests.
Prepare main point outlines for anticipated questions (or even write out essays).
Include a couple of specific details.
Write out possible questions.
Don''t expect to be able to anticipate all the questions.
6. Get a decent amount of sleep.
7. Eat something (fruit, cereal, sandwich, granola bar) before the test.

IF YOU HAVE TO CRAM...
If you only have one or two days before the exam and you haven''t done much of the reading: BE INTELLIGENT ABOUT YOUR CRAMMING.
1. How to cram for essay tests:
Recite from and review your lecture notes.
Survey the readings.
Read the chapter summaries carefully.
Get a general idea of the main points of the reading.
Don''t leave out whole chapters or major sections of the reading.
Take notes on the highlights of all your notes.
Take summary notes of the highlights of all your notes. Recite from these summary notes.
2. How to cram for objective tests:
Recite from and review your lecture notes. Take summary notes and recite from them.
Learn new terms.
Read as much as you can.
Pray.
3. Get some sleep.

THE DAY OF THE EXAM
1. Psych yourself up--be confident!
2. In the morning:
Set an alarm with enough time to get to the exam without worrying, then set it 1/2 to 3/4 hour earlier.
Have the proper materials:
2 pencils and 2 similar pens.
Eraser.
Blue Books (if necessary).
Calculator (if necessary) & spare battery.
Any books or notes that are allowed.
a. Put book marks at important pages.
b. Keep list on inside front cover of pages of important tables, etc.
Glance over your notes.
Relax on campus immediately before the test, perhaps with the newspaper and a cup of coffee.
Avoid conversations about the subject matter--it can throw you off balance.
Don''t study the last hour before the test.
Eat something light to give you energy and to keep your stomach from annoying you as well as others.
3. Get to the exam room early enough to:
Get a good seat.
Blackboard is in view.
Clock is in view.
Light is okay.
Distracting friends are not near you.
Glance over your notes one last time (optional).
Relax for a second before starting. Practice slow, deep breathing.
4. How to handle test anxiety.
It''s natural--accept it.
Some anxiety is good for motivation.
If you have too much anxiety. Take your mind off of self-defeating thoughts. For example:
Before the test begins:
Picture your summary notes and rehearse key concepts and terms in your mind''s eye.
Think briefly about the relaxed aftermath.
Take several slow deep breaths and concentrate on relaxing your whole body.
During the test: (Think about the test items, not about how well you''re doing).
If anxiety interferes regularly, schedule an appointment with the Counseling and Career Services office for relaxation training.

HOW TO TAKE OBJECTIVE TESTS
1. Write your name.
2. Survey the test.
Glance at all the pages.
How long is it?
Are you missing any pages?
What types of questions are there? (e.g., multiple choice, matching)
At the top of the paper write the halfway time and the halfway question number.
3. Write out any memorized lists onto the exam sheet.
4. Read the directions carefully.
Is there a penalty for guessing? (If not, answer all the questions.)
Are all the questions weighted equally?
For multiple choice: Is there only ONE correct choice for each question?
For true - false: Do you have to write explanations as to why this statement is true or false?
For short answers: Do you have to write in complete sentences?
ASK if you find the directions unclear.
5. Answer easy questions first.
Because:
You won''t miss any easy questions by running out of time.
It builds confidence.
Later questions sometimes help answer earlier hard ones.
You may spontaneously remember answers to hard questions later.
Skip difficult questions and mark them for return with an "X" in the margin.
Answer questions that you''re somewhat sure about (but not completely sure) and mark them with a "?" in the margin.
6. Answering questions.
Cross out both negatives of a double negative.
Underline dogmatic terms. Statements containing them are usually false because few things in the world meet the requirements of "always, never, best, etc."
True - False. Be careful of statements with two clauses.
If the statement contains "and", both clauses have to be true for the statement to be true.
If the statement contains "or", only one clause has to be true for the statement to be true.
Fill-in: If you blank out, write anything.
Matching: Read all items before making any matches.
Multiple choice:
Try to recall the answers before reading the choices.
Each time is a number of True-False questions in one.
Cross out the letter of obviously false choices.
As you''re reading the choices circle the letter of choices that seem likely to be the best.
Read all choices!
Select the best choice. If two or more choices are correct, choose the most specific one. E.G., "A triangle has 3 sides," is better than "a triangle has more than 2 sides."
Do not pay attention to how many "A''s", "B''s", "C''s", or "D''s" you have marked.
Don''t spend time filling in the answer sheet very neatly.
7. Checking your answers.
Use all the time allowed.
Make sure:
All questions are answered (if no penalty for guessing).
All choices are clearly marked.
All "X''s" and "?''s" on the answer sheet have been erased.
Answer sheet numbers correspond to exam question numbers.
Rework all questions if you have time.
First, work on unanswered questions with "X".
Second, rework questions with a "?".
Third, reword the rest of the questions.
Phen này ông quyết đi buôn cối Trên ... mạng bao nhiêu đứa giã trầu. (Xin lỗi cụ Tú)